Public service facilities are the essential part of both harmonious livable city construction and people's desire for a better life in China. Our findings show the research topics regarding public service facilities allocation varies at home and abroad. English literature focuses mainly on the location choice, accessibility, spatial equity and social economic effects of public service facilities allocation, while domestic studies pay enormous attention to the optimized layout, accessibility, spatial patterns, social differentiation, residents' needs and satisfaction, as well as influencing factors of public service facilities allocation. Combining the prior domestic and foreign research, future studies in China should be more concerned with spatial distribution regularities, social equity, performance evaluation and spatial optimization of public service facilities allocation. By reviewing the related research progress at home and abroad, this study can contribute to promoting both theory ascension and scientific practice of urban public service facilities allocation in China.

公共服务设施是中国和谐宜居城市建设与人民美好生活愿望的重要构成。国内外城市公共服务设施配置的研究主题有所差异,国外研究主要关注公共服务设施配置的区位选择、可达性、空间公平和社会经济效应等方面,国内研究更加重视公共服务设施配置的优化布局、可达性、空间格局、社会分异、居民需求和满意度以及配置影响因素等内容。结合国内外研究现状的评析,论文认为中国城市公共服务设施配置研究需要加强公共服务设施配置的空间规律、社会公平、绩效评价和空间优化等方向研究。通过对国内外城市公共服务设施配置研究进展的理论总结与评述,以期促进中国城市公共服务设施配置的理论提升与科学实践。

Basic public service is the foundation of maintaining social fairness and justice. It is of significance to build a comprehensively well-off society by establishing and perfecting the basic public service system and promoting the equal basic public service. By establishing the evaluation system of basic public service, this article evaluated the level of basic public service in Henan Province, then analyzed the spatial pattern of basic public service quality by using the spatial autocorrelation method, and finally studied the spatial spillover effects and the influence factors of basic public service by using Spatial Durbin Model. The results show that, 1) The level of basic public service quality in cities of Henan Province shows the different rising trend during 2005-2013, but the overall level remains to be improved. The relative difference among cities shows the trend of shrinking. The low level area shows obvious “catch-up effect” to high level area. 2) The spatial pattern of basic public service shows the structure of half band characteristics and the level of basic public service decreases from northwest to southeast. From the global trend, the basic public service level in west area is higher than the east area, the north area is superior to the south area and the latitudinal direction difference is less than the east-west differences. Compared with sub-region in Henan Province, the level of the Central Plains Urban Agglomeration is the highest, the level of the western and southwest region and the northern region is the higher, and the level of Huanghuai region is the lowest. 3) The global Moran’s index during 2005-2013 is positive. The spatial pattern of basic public service shows the positive spatial correlation. The various types of basic public service show the spatial evolution mode of agglomeration-dispersion-agglomeration. The local auto-correlation results show that the spatial club convergence characteristics of High-High and Low-Low agglomeration is obvious. The distribution and amount of various agglomeration types remain stable. 4) The spatial Durbin Model test shows that there exists spatial spillover effects of basic public service among cities in Henan Province. The level of regional basic public service is not only influenced by the region itself factors, also affected by the basic public service level of adjacent areas. The regression results show that the urbanization level, local financial expenditure and regional economic vitality have a positive influence on the basic public service.

构建基本公共服务质量评价指标体系,对河南省基本公共服务水平和空间格局特征进行了分析,最后采用空间杜宾模型研究了基本公共服务的空间溢出效应与影响因素。研究发现：① 2005~2014年河南省各市基本公共服务水平呈不同程度的上升趋势,但整体水平不高;空间格局上呈自西北向东南衰减的半环带圈层结构。② 基本公共服务在市际尺度上具有显著的全局与局部自相关特征,随时间呈现集聚-分散-集聚的演变模式;高高集聚与低低集聚的空间俱乐部趋同特征明显。③ 空间杜宾模型检验表明基本公共服务空间上存在溢出效应;城镇化水平、地方政府财政支出能力、地方经济发展活力对基本公共服务具有正向促进作用。

Education is not only important for strengthening a country's population quality and comprehensive power but key in reshaping the "man-land" relations in a country. This article reviews studies on the distribution of educational resources in both Chinese and Anglophone literature and summarizes the research gaps in the Chinese literature, which include but are not limited to the downplay of the analysis of mechanism and comprehensive effects of the spatial structure of educational resources. Employing different map-making technologies and mechanism-analysis methods, this article dives into three findings. First, though spatial features are slightly different between primary school level and middle school level, eastern regions generally have higher quality educational resources than western regions. In addition, urban agglomeration, including Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Shanghai-Ningbo-Hangzhou, and the Pearl River Delta, have an advantage in attracting and cultivating high-quality educational resources. Second, the quantity of high-quality primary school resources is positively correlated with annual per capita disposable income of urban households and number of full-time primary school teachers. The quantity of high-quality middle school resources is positively correlated with the comprehensive economic and social performance of the city. Third, when affected by multiple mechanisms, the spatial structure of China's high-quality educational resources is dynamic and deeply intertwines with the interrelations between cities as well as between the societies within each city. This article contributes both to the understanding of the unequal spatial structure of high-quality educational resources in China and to the analysis of complex socio-political effects on this transforming structure. Its findings encourage further research on the connection between the spatial structure of a region's educational resources and its cooperation and geopolitics as well as on the resulting social mobility among different social strata. Study limitations include: place-related elements, such as local political resources, were not sufficiently considered when selecting factors; there is a lack of longitudinal analysis; and not enough attention is paid to the combination of number-based data and geo-information-based data in analyses.

教育关乎一个国家人口素质的提升和综合实力的发展,也是塑造国家和地区人地关系的重要因素。通过回顾并反思中西方人文地理学视角下的教育资源配置研究,总结当前中国相关研究的不足。借鉴当前西方教育资源空间格局研究中所采取的“资源格局—影响机制—社会效应”的主流路径,本文利用多种空间分析和机制研究方法,对中国优质基础教育资源空间格局、形成机制和综合效应进行了分析。研究发现：① 优质小学基础教育资源和优质中学教育资源的区域格局和强度虽各有差异,但都体现出不平衡的发展特征,特别是在区域尺度上,体现出明显的东西部差异。此外,中国几大城市群,如京津冀,沪宁杭,珠三角,武汉都市圈以及成渝都市圈等,是优质基础教育资源的优势区域;② 优质小学教育资源的形成和规模增长与城市居民经济自由度以及城市专任教师规模两个因素高度相关;优质中学教育资源的形成和规模增长和城市本底经济社会发展水平因素高度相关;③ 在多元相关机制作用下,中国优质教育资源空间结构在当下及未来必定处于复杂动态变化之中,并将更为深刻地塑造着城市与城市、城市与社会之间的互动关系。本文有助于理解中国优质教育资源空间结构不平衡的现状,同时反思和探索教育资源结构所蕴含和产生的政治意义和社会影响。

In present-day China, the unequal distribution of public healthcare resources across different levels and regions is problematic. Hierarchical diagnosis and treatment (HDT) reform is of great significance for optimising the distribution of healthcare resources and promoting fairness across health services. In this study, exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) was applied to evaluate spatial patterns at the lower and upper levels of healthcare resources. The Geodetector model was used to analyse the influences of the healthcare system at the municipal and county levels during 2015. The results show that there is significant spatial clustering in the distribution of the two-level healthcare resources. Influences on upper-level healthcare resources are more significant than those on lower levels. The dominant influencing factors of the two-level healthcare resources differ across spatial scales and regions. In terms of upper-level healthcare resources, urbanisation, population density and the level of economic development are the dominant global factors, in addition to the regional factors of population aging, topography and the morbidity of epidemic and endemic diseases. In the case of lower-level healthcare resources, urbanisation is an important influencing factor, while economic development, population aging and morbidity have local effects. Ultimately, population density was the dominant factor. Finally, this paper suggests that, aiming for HDT reform, decision makers should allocate healthcare resources among different regions and levels in consideration of relevant global and local factors, united and targeted policies, and top-down and bottom-up decision-making mechanisms. This could promote the overall function of the healthcare system and enhance the equity and coordination of multi-level healthcare resources.

中国公共医疗资源在层级间和地区间配置不合理的问题较为突出。分级诊疗改革对优化医疗资源配置、实现供需均衡具有重要意义。运用探索性空间分析法和地理探测器分别从全国地级市域和四川县域两个尺度分析了2015年两层级医疗资源的空间配置特征与影响机制。结果表明：基层和上层医疗资源均呈显著空间聚集特征,而层级间空间配置格局具有差异性。不同尺度和区域两层级医疗资源配置的决定力及其影响强度不同,上层医疗资源对外部影响因素响应强度大于基层。对上层级医疗资源配置而言,城镇化率、人口密度、经济发展水平是全局性因素,老龄化、地形条件和发病率为地方性因素;对基层医疗资源配置而言,人口密度是较为显著的全局性影响因素,城镇化率是重要的地方性影响因素,地形、经济发展水平、人口老龄化和发病率在部分尺度和区域有局部影响。为实现分级诊疗改革的目标,各级决策部门需以“全局性和地域性因素相结合,统一性和地方性政策相结合,自上而下与自下而上决策机制相结合”为思路,统筹不同区域和层级医疗资源配置,以提高医疗卫生服务体系的整体功能,促进其均衡、协同发展。

Spatial accessibility measurement can be applied to assess the rationality of public service facilities distribution, and can be used to compare the merits and drawbacks of related planning schemes. As for spatial accessibility measurement to public service facilities, the primary issue is to select corresponding accessibility evaluation factors according to specific spatial distribution targets of various facilities presumed by facilities features and service demands, and the next is to apply appropriate accessibility measurement approaches according to the evaluation factors and to achieve the accessibility calculation. However, it is unlucky that the present literature on such thematic studies is scarce. On the one hand, we analyze the classification to public service facilities from the perspectives of service urgency, acceptability, quantity (single or various) and hierarchic rank, and then we discuss how to presume spatial distribution targets and select corresponding accessibility evaluation factors of different facilities. On the other hand, we introduce the main measurement approaches including the methods based on supply (provider) versus demand (population), the shortest travel impedance (time or distance), opportunities to be accumulated, and spatial interaction, and furthermore we compare the applications as well as the merits and drawbacks of various approaches, and discuss how to measure spatial accessibility of public service facilities based on potential model and two-step floating catchment area method. Finally, based on the above review and summary, we point out that the following research topics should be devoted more attention to: the spatial accessibility measurement to hierarchical facilities, comprehensive examination of the spatial accessibility measurement from the point of view of demanders activities, integrated spatial accessibility measurement to multiple facilities in the study area, and the integration between complicated measure approaches and GIS.

空间可达性度量既可用于评价公共服务设施空间布局的合理性，也可用于比较规划方案的优劣。公共服务设施空间可达性度量需要针对不同设施特有的空间布局目标，选取与之相适应的可达性评价因子，并采用合适的度量方法展开，对此进行专题研究的文献并不多见。本文一方面在对公共服务设施按照时效性、接受性、数量、等级性进行分类的基础上，系统阐述如何针对不同设施进行空间布局目标设定和可达性评价因子选取；另一方面将主要的度量方法分为比例法、最近距离法、基于机会累积的方法、基于空间相互作用的方法，并对各类方法的应用领域及优缺点予以分析比较，同时以潜能模型、两步移动搜寻法为例探讨相关方法在公共服务设施空间可达性度量中的应用；最后在对上述研究总结评述的基础上，本文指出多等级设施空间可达性、从需求者的活动规律考虑空间可达性、针对各类设施的综合空间可达性以及相关度量方法与GIS的集成等主题值得投入更多关注。

Two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is an important method of research on spatial accessibility to public services, which has been widely applied in studies on the spatial layout of public service facilities. Various extensions of 2SFCA have been developed. However, the application of the 2SFCA method and especially its extensions is still very limited in China. Thus, this study systematically summarizes the major extensions of the 2SFCA method. Such extensions found in existing literature can be classified into four categories. The first category focuses on the distance-decay function, replacing the dichotomous distance-decay form of the original 2SFCA by a multilevel discrete form as in the Enhanced 2SFCA, or continuous forms such as in the gravity-style, Gaussian-style, and Kernel-density-style distance-decay functions. The second category deals with the delimitation of catchment areas. The original 2SFCA form adopts a buffer-ring (BR) method delineating the catchment areas as concentric circles with certain radii of physical distance or travel time. A number of extensions have improved the BR method, including the Variable 2SFCA, the Dynamic 2SFCA, and the Multi Catchment Sizes 2SFCA. Moreover, a novel nearest-neighbor (NN) method for delineating the catchment areas by identifying a finite number of nearest facilities for each demand node has been proposed. The third category strives to improve the accuracy of 2SFCA by accounting for the competition among demand nodes or among supply nodes. The initial extension of this category is the Three-step Floating Catchment Area (3SFCA) method, following which other extensions such as the Modified 2SFCA and the Huff 2SFCA are proposed to make further improvements. The fourth category extends the travel means of the demand side, including the Multi-mode 2SFCA taking into account various potential transportation modes, and the Commuter-based 2SFCA integrating service visits and commuting behavior. The advantages and disadvantages, scenarios appropriate for their application, and potential improvements in the future of these extensions are also discussed. This study can contribute to the choice of method in relevant studies and promote the implementation and development of the 2SFCA method and extensions in relevant research fields in China.

两步移动搜寻法是公共服务设施空间可达性研究中的重要方法,在国内外公共服务设施布局研究中得到了广泛应用,且发展出了众多扩展形式。但国内研究中对两步移动搜寻法尤其是其扩展形式的应用还较为有限。本文对两步移动搜寻法的主要扩展形式进行系统梳理和总结,将国内外研究中提出的两步移动搜寻法扩展形式归纳为基于引入距离衰减函数的扩展、对搜寻半径的扩展、针对需求或供给竞争的扩展以及基于出行方式的扩展4类,并分析了各种扩展形式的优缺点、适用情景以及未来可能改进方向。旨在为相关研究的方法选择提供参考,促进两步移动搜寻法及其扩展形式在国内相关领域的应用和发展。

Transport hubs are important elements of an integrated transportation system. How to locate transport hubs rationally has great significance to construct an efficient integrated transportation system. The layout optimization of transport hubs has been a focus field of transportation engineering and transportation geography. However, the current research on transport hubs' layout has limits to one single transport mode and has not considered the integration of all transport modes. As a result, the transport hubs' construction has the problem of fragmentation, duplication and even contradictory. Based on regional comprehensive transport hubs, this paper designs a series of indices, composed of 20 indicators. All these 20 indicators belong to three categories: transport network, passenger and freight traffic, and socio-economic development. The basic unit is 337 prefecture-level cities, and the maximum coverage model is adopted (one of the spatial layout optimization models). Under the condition of limited space, the model tries to find a way to locate infrastructure with the aim of making people as many as possible enjoy infrastructure service in a certain distance. First, this paper evaluates the potential of the 337 prefecture level cities for being comprehensive transport hubs with the maximum coverage model, and then identifies the optimal number of comprehensive transport hubs and their spatial distribution with the service radius of 80 km, 120 km, 160 km and 200 km separately. Second, the paper summarizes the general rules between the number of transport hubs and the objective values, and finally chooses 42 transport hubs for China. Third, this paper divides the hierarchy of the 42 transport hubs and simulates their spatial effect of area, population, and GDP, and the result shows better than that of the comprehensive transport hubs by national planning.

The location of the primary and secondary schools has a great significance on ensuring the safety and convenience when students attending and leaving schools. Many previous researches have proposed school location-allocation models, but the models are not suitable for rural schools. In this manuscript, we improve the P-median model by fully considering the advantages of P-center model and P-median model. A maximum distance constraint between students' home and school are coupled into the original P-median model. Thus, the improved P-median model owns the advantages of both P-center model and P-median model, i.e. ensuring the convenience for students from remote rural areas, and minimizing the sum of weighted distance. In order to facilitate the model application, an decision support system based on our newly derived vertex substitution search algorithm for allocating optimal location of rural elementary and secondary school were developed on the ArcGIS Engine development component library and Visual Studio development platform. Afterwards, a town of Shandong province is taken as a system test case. The school location selected by our system is better than the locations selected by traditional P-median model. The results prove that the improved P-center model can supply a reference for allocating the location of elementary and secondary school.

农村中小学的选址问题是当前地理学区位理论应用的一个热点,学校作为一个设施对学生上学安全和便捷程度有很大影响。许多学者研究了学校的区位问题,然而对农村地区来说,采用模型不够适合。本文学校选址研究充分考虑P-重心模型和P-中心模型的优缺点,在P-重心模型的基础上对模型进行改进,增加学生上学最大距离不超过某一阈值的约束,这样改进后的模型同时具有P-中心和P-重心模型的优点,既保证农村偏远地区的学生上学相对方便,又保证加权距离和相对最小。为了方便应用,应用地理信息科学方法,使用改进的节点交换搜索算法求解,然后通过Visual Studio 开发平台和ArcGIS Engine 二次开发组件库开发了农村中小学最优选址的决策支持系统。最后以山东省某镇为例,用该系统解决该镇的小学选址,结果发现改进后同时具有P-重心和P-中心特性的模型比传统的P-重心模型更能适合农村小学选址,能够作为小学学校规划选址的辅助决策依据。

Determining the appropriate number of civil airports is an important topic in Chinese civil airport planning and development. Qualitative estimation of the number of airports cannot meet the requirement of future planning, thus appropriate quantitative methods are needed for providing sound support for decision making. According to the different accessibility requirements of various demand points, this paper defines different accessibility thresholds for different levels of airports, sets the minimum number of population that an airport should serve, and utilizes the revised Location Set Covering Problem (LSCP) and Maximal Covering Location Problem (MCLP) models for the stratified estimation of the total number and location of Chinese civil airports. The result reveals that to cover 95% of the total population within 100 km rectilinear distance, the required number of airports is 370~385. In the central and western regions, city-and county-level airports are all required. City-level airports need to be constructed in northeast China and there should be a number of new county-level airports in Heilongjiang Province. In the eastern region, seldom any city-level airports but some county-level airports are demanded. The result that some cities do not need new airports in the city-level estimation but the counties under these cities need one or more new airports in the county-level estimation may seem counter intuitive, but this research found that this result is reasonable. The result is heuristic for future civil airport planning.

适宜的机场数量规模是中国机场发展战略和中长期规划的重要研究内容。传统的定性方法难以满足规划的需求,而采用合理的定量测算方法求解中国机场规模对未来的规划更具有参考意义。本文根据不同等级需求点的可达性要求,设置不同的机场服务半径,并规定新建机场腹地人口规模,通过制定位置集合覆盖模型(Location Set Covering Problem,LSCP)和最大覆盖选址模型(Maximal Covering Location Problem, MCLP)的综合修正模型,对中国机场规模进行分层测算。结果表明,不同地、县级需求组合下,在地面道路距离100 km范围内覆盖中国95%总人口时,中国机场规模以370~385个为宜。其中,中部、西部地区地级机场与县级机场均需建设;东北地区需要多新建地级机场,黑龙江省还需新建少量县级机场;东部地区新建少量地级机场以及适量县级机场。对于本文结果中出现的首层地级测算中地级市没有布局机场,但在第二层县级测算时下属县却布局机场,以及同一地级市布局多个县级机场的现象,认为是合理的。测算结果对未来民航机场规划具有一定参考价值。

Beijing is facing rapid population aging. Residential care plays an increasingly important role in the care for the elderly people. It is of great importance to optimize the layout of residential care facilities to ensure equal and reasonable access, which has scientific and practical implications. This study first forecasted the spatial distribution of the elderly population under natural growth in 2020 in Beijing. Second, a spatial optimization model was established to maximize equity in access to residential care facilities. The Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm was used to solve the optimization model. As the results show, the elderly population aged 60 or older will reach 4.37 million in 2020 in Beijing, among which 7.9%, 50.2%, 30.1%, and 11.8% of the total elderly population will be located in the Capital Core Functional Area, Urban Functional Extension Area, Urban New Developing Area, and Ecological Protection Area, respectively. By contrast, 2.7%, 32.7%, 48.5%, and 16.1% of the total residential care facility (RCF) beds will be located in the Capital Core Functional Area, Urban Functional Extension Area, Urban New Developing Area, and Ecological Protection Area, respectively when optimized. The optimized RCF layouts improve spatially equal access to residential care resources with very low accessibility standard variation (0.0026), while the accessibility standard variation of actual layouts is 8 times (0.0207) that of the optimized results. In the layouts with maximum equity in access, only a portion of the demands for residential care in the Capital Core Functional Area and Urban Functional Extension Area will be met locally. The residential care resources in the Urban New Developing Area will meet both the local demands and the demands from the two functional areas in the central city. The Ecological Protection Area, however, mainly provides residential care services for the local elderly population. The optimized results of this study correspond to the “Special Plan for the Development of Residential Care Facilities in Beijing,” which also conforms to the reality that the land resources are in shortage in the central city and the physical environment in the suburb is more pleasant for the elderly people. The results of this study will support knowledge-based policy-making and planning of residential care facilities. The methods introduced in this study can also be applied to the spatial optimization of other types of public service facilities.

北京市正快速步入老龄化社会,机构养老作为一种重要的养老模式,对其布局公平性和合理性的研究具有重要的科学和现实意义。本文首先预测了自然增长状态下2020年北京市老龄人口的空间分布,然后建立设施布局优化模型,该模型以各需求点到养老设施的可达性差异最小化为目标;并采用粒子群优化算法求解,对北京市养老设施进行以公平最大化为目标的布局优化。研究结果表明,在公平最大化的目标下,首都功能核心区和城市功能拓展区(即中心城区)所提供的机构养老资源不能完全满足本地需求。城市发展新区在满足当地的机构养老需求之外,还将为中心城区提供大量机构养老服务,生态涵养发展区在满足本地需求的基础上还可为其他地区提供少量机构养老服务。该布局导向与《北京市养老设施专项规划》提出的布局建议相一致,且符合中心城区用地紧张、郊区自然环境较舒适的现实情况。研究结果能为养老政策的制定提供科学建议,所采用的方法也能为其他类型公共服务设施的布局优化提供借鉴。

空间优化正从地理学的一个研究方向成为学科分支,但公平导向的公共服务空间分配优化研究还较薄弱。学区配置是这方面的一个典型问题,受到社会的广泛关注。针对“多校划片”的随机入学方式,以各居住小区所获得的教育质量期望值的方差来定义入学指标空间分配的公平程度,构建了以该方差最小化为目标、包含最大上学距离约束的二次规划模型,探求各小区对所获得指标进行随机抽签的情景下,各校入学指标在各小区的公平最大化分配,并以北京市石景山区为案例进行了应用研究。结果表明,在维持学校布局和师资配置现状的前提下,与“就近入学”相比,公平最大化的“多校划片”能以有限的上学距离代价,显著降低教育分配的空间差异。在最大上学距离为5 km的约束下,各小区教育质量期望值的方差降幅高达99%,教育质量期望值有所提升的小区或学生比例高达约2/3;付出的上学距离代价较显著但可接受,平均上学距离增加到3.99倍,达到3.20 km,仍低于案例区实际平均上学距离。当模型的最大上学距离参数从5 km逐步增至8 km时,教育公平的改善呈指数增长,平均上学距离呈算数增长;当距离为7 km时,各小区教育质量期望值的方差趋近于0,可基本实现上学机会的空间均等化。本文进一步讨论了优化结果对入学政策的启示。

This paper explores four definitions of equity in health care: equality of utilization, distribution according to need, equality of access, and equality of health. We argue that the definitions of 'need' in the literature are inadequate and propose a new definition. We also argue that, irrespective of how need and access are defined, the four definitions of equity are, in general, mutually incompatible. In contrast to previous authors, we suggest that equality of health should be the dominant principle and that equity in health care should therefore entail distributing care in such a way as to get as close as is feasible to an equal distribution of health.