Abstract

Objective.

This paper assesses the potential benefits of increased walking and reduced obesity associated with taking public transit in terms of dollars of medical costs saved and disability avoided.

Methods.

I conduct a new analysis of a nationally representative U.S. transportation survey to gauge the net increase in walking associated with public transit usage. I translate minutes spent walking into energy expenditures and reductions in obesity prevalence, estimating the present value of costs and disability that may be avoided.

Results.

Taking public transit is associated with walking 8.3 more minutes per day on average, or an additional 25.7–39.0 kcal. Hill et al. [Hill, J.O., Wyatt, H.R., Reed, G.W., Peters, J.C., 2003. Obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here? Science 299 (5608), 853–855] estimate that an increase in net expenditure of 100 kcal/day can stop the increase in obesity in 90% of the population. Additional walking associated with public transit could save $5500 per person in present value by reducing obesity-related medical costs. Savings in quality-adjusted life years could be even higher.

Conclusions.

While no silver bullet, walking associated with public transit can have a substantial impact on obesity, costs, and well-being. Further research is warranted on the net impact of transit usage on all behaviors, including caloric intake and other types of exercise, and on whether policies can promote transit usage at acceptable cost.

Abstract

Background

Understanding how environmental attributes can influence particular physical activity behaviors is a public health research priority. Walking is the most common physical activity behavior of adults; environmental innovations may be able to influence rates of participation.

Method

Review of studies on relationships of objectively assessed and perceived environmental attributes with walking. Associations with environmental attributes were examined separately for exercise and recreational walking, walking to get to and from places, and total walking.

Results

Eighteen studies were identified. Aesthetic attributes, convenience of facilities for walking (sidewalks, trails); accessibility of destinations (stores, park, beach); and perceptions about traffic and busy roads were found to be associated with walking for particular purposes. Attributes associated with walking for exercise were different from those associated with walking to get to and from places.

Conclusions

While few studies have examined specific environment–walking relationships, early evidence is promising. Key elements of the research agenda are developing reliable and valid measures of environmental attributes and walking behaviors, determining whether environment–behavior relationships are causal, and developing theoretical models that account for environmental influences and their interactions with other determinants.

Abstract

Background: Promoting physical activity is a public health priority, and changes in the environmental contexts of adults’ activity choices are believed to be crucial. However, of the factors associated with physical activity, environmental influences are among the least understood.

Method: Using journal scans and computerized literature database searches, we identified 19 quantitative studies that assessed the relationships with physical activity behavior of perceived and objectively determined physical environment attributes. Findings were categorized into those examining five categories: accessibility of facilities, opportunities for activity, weather, safety, and aesthetic attributes.

Results: Accessibility, opportunities, and aesthetic attributes had significant associations with physical activity. Weather and safety showed less-strong relationships. Where studies pooled different categories to create composite variables, the associations were less likely to be statistically significant.

Conclusions: Physical environment factors have consistent associations with physical activity behavior. Further development of ecologic and environmental models, together with behavior-specific and context-specific measurement strategies, should help in further understanding of these associations. Prospective studies are required to identify possible causal relationships.

Using data from a regional survey carried out in Montreal, this paper shows empirical evidence that modal shift from car to transit contributes to the volume of daily physical activity. First, the paper presents a method to calculate the walking distance related to transit trips, and a totally disaggregate trip assignment model. The walking distance involved in every transit trip is then associated to the individuals' characteristics to estimate the number of steps made by the population in the whole transit system.
Results show that, in average, a transit trip involves 1250 steps, required to access and egress the network as well as to transfer between routes or modes. Thus, a round trip represents 2500 steps, which account for 25% of the recommended volume of physical activity per day. Hence, analysis shows that the volume of walking varies according to attributes of the traveler (general decrease with age, higher for men) and of the trip (study and work trip involve more steps, the use of train generates more steps). A regression model confirms that these variables significantly affect the number of steps involved in transit trips. Such positive outcome, for the traveler himself, is an innovative argument to promote the use of transit that is also aligned with current sustainable transportation goals. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

Objectives. We isolated physical activity attributable to transit use to examine issues of substitution between types of physical activity and potential confounding of transit-related walking with other walking.
Methods. Physical activity and transit use data were collected in 2008 to 2009 from 693 Travel Assessment and Community study participants from King County, Washington, equipped with an accelerometer, a portable Global Positioning System, and a 7-day travel log. Physical activity was classified into transit-and non-transit-related walking and nonwalking time. Analyses compared physical activity by type between transit users and nonusers, between less and more frequent transit users, and between transit and nontransit days for transit users.
Results. Transit users had more daily overall physical activity and more total walking than did nontransit users but did not differ on either non-transit-related walking or nonwalking physical activity. Most frequent transit users had more walking time than least frequent transit users. Higher physical activity levels for transit users were observed only on transit days, with 14.6 minutes (12.4 minutes when adjusted for demographics) of daily physical activity directly linked with transit use.
Conclusions. Because transit use was directly related to higher physical activity, future research should examine whether substantive increases in transit access and use lead to more physical activity and related health improvements.

Background

Nearly half of Americans do not meet the Surgeon General’s recommendation of ≥30 minutes of physical activity daily. Some transit users may achieve 30 minutes of physical activity daily solely by walking to and from transit. This study estimates the total daily time spent walking to and from transit and the predictors of achieving 30 minutes of physical activity daily by doing so.

Methods

Transit-associated walking times for 3312 transit users were examined among the 105,942 adult respondents to the 2001 National Household Travel Survey, a telephone-based survey sponsored by the U.S. Department of Transportation to assess American travel behavior.

Results

Americans who use transit spend a median of 19 minutes daily walking to and from transit; 29% achieve ≥30 minutes of physical activity a day solely by walking to and from transit. In multivariate analysis, rail users, minorities, people in households earning <$15,000 a year, and people in high-density urban areas were more likely to spend ≥30 minutes walking to and from transit daily.

Conclusions

Walking to and from public transportation can help physically inactive populations, especially low-income and minority groups, attain the recommended level of daily physical activity. Increased access to public transit may help promote and maintain active lifestyles. Results from this study may contribute to health impact assessment studies (HIA) that evaluate the impact of proposed public transit systems on physical activity levels, and thereby may influence choices made by transportation planners.

Pedestrian travel offers a wide range of benefits to both individuals and society. Planners and public health officials alike have been promoting policies that improve the quality of the built environment for pedestrians: mixed land uses, interconnected street networks, sidewalks and other facilities. Whether such policies will prove effective remains open to debate. Two issues in particular need further attention. First, the impact of the built environment on pedestrian behavior may depend on the purpose of the trip, whether for utilitarian or recreational purposes. Second, the connection between the built environment and pedestrian behavior may be more a matter of residential location choice than of travel choice. This study aims to provide new evidence on both questions. Using 1368 respondents to a 1995 survey conducted in six neighborhoods in Austin, TX, two separate negative binomial models were estimated for the frequencies of strolling trips and pedestrian shopping trips within neighborhoods. We found that although residential self-selection impacts both types of trips, it is the most important factor explaining walking to a destination (i.e. for shopping). After accounting for self-selection, neighborhood characteristics (especially perceptions of these characteristics) impact strolling frequency, while characteristics of local commercial areas are important in facilitating shopping trips.

Numerous studies have examined the influencing factors of CO₂ emissions from transportation at the national, city and community levels. However, fewer studies have considered the effect of residential self-selection. Ignoring this effect is likely to result in underestimating the role of the built environment, thus affecting relevant planning and policy development. Is the effect of residential self-selection in Chinese cities the same as in Western cities? How and to what extent does the built environment affect CO₂ emissions from travel after controlling for the effect of residential self-selection? To address these questions, this paper first measures the CO₂ emissions from travel on the basis of the Travel Intelligent Query System (TIQS) developed by us on the Baidu map LBS (Location Based Service) open platform, and 1239 questionnaires conducted in 15 communities in Guangzhou in 2015. It develops a structural equation model (SEM) to examine the effects of the influencing factors on CO₂ emissions of trips with different purposes. The results show that the effect of residential self-selection also exists in Chinese cities. Changing residents' preference of travel mode will help reduce travel-related CO₂ emissions. After controlling the effect of residential self-selection, the built environment still has significant effects on CO₂ emissions from travel. Although some of them are direct effects, others are indirect effects that work through mediating variables, such as car ownership and travel distance. For different trip purposes, the mechanisms of CO₂ emissions are not the same. Specifically, the distance to city public centers has a significant positive total effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting trips, which is an indirect effect. Residential density significantly affects CO₂ emissions from social, recreational and daily shopping trips, but it has no significant effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting trips. Bus stop density is positively associated with CO₂ emissions from commuting trips, and negatively associated with CO₂ emissions from social and daily shopping trips. In addition, land-use mix has a negative effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting, social and daily shopping trips, and metro station density and road network density have significant negative effects on CO₂ emissions from all types of trip. These results suggest that it is necessary to comprehensively consider the effects of the built environment on CO₂ emissions from different types of trip, and carry out targeted intervention on the built environment in related planning and policy development so as to guide the public to change their travel behavior and to promote low-carbon travel.

Numerous studies have examined the influencing factors of CO₂ emissions from transportation at the national, city and community levels. However, fewer studies have considered the effect of residential self-selection. Ignoring this effect is likely to result in underestimating the role of the built environment, thus affecting relevant planning and policy development. Is the effect of residential self-selection in Chinese cities the same as in Western cities? How and to what extent does the built environment affect CO₂ emissions from travel after controlling for the effect of residential self-selection? To address these questions, this paper first measures the CO₂ emissions from travel on the basis of the Travel Intelligent Query System (TIQS) developed by us on the Baidu map LBS (Location Based Service) open platform, and 1239 questionnaires conducted in 15 communities in Guangzhou in 2015. It develops a structural equation model (SEM) to examine the effects of the influencing factors on CO₂ emissions of trips with different purposes. The results show that the effect of residential self-selection also exists in Chinese cities. Changing residents' preference of travel mode will help reduce travel-related CO₂ emissions. After controlling the effect of residential self-selection, the built environment still has significant effects on CO₂ emissions from travel. Although some of them are direct effects, others are indirect effects that work through mediating variables, such as car ownership and travel distance. For different trip purposes, the mechanisms of CO₂ emissions are not the same. Specifically, the distance to city public centers has a significant positive total effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting trips, which is an indirect effect. Residential density significantly affects CO₂ emissions from social, recreational and daily shopping trips, but it has no significant effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting trips. Bus stop density is positively associated with CO₂ emissions from commuting trips, and negatively associated with CO₂ emissions from social and daily shopping trips. In addition, land-use mix has a negative effect on CO₂ emissions from commuting, social and daily shopping trips, and metro station density and road network density have significant negative effects on CO₂ emissions from all types of trip. These results suggest that it is necessary to comprehensively consider the effects of the built environment on CO₂ emissions from different types of trip, and carry out targeted intervention on the built environment in related planning and policy development so as to guide the public to change their travel behavior and to promote low-carbon travel.

Theoretical analysis shows that the effect of rail transit on housing price is greater in suburbs than that in the central area. Empirical results validate this point by using the hedonic pricing method and housing transaction data nearby No.13 rail line in Beijing. In suburban areas, the housing prices within 1 km of rail stations are nearly 20% higher than those beyond that distance. However, with the development of surrounding urban transportation networks, the impact of rail transit is declining. Also, rail transit has significant impacts on urban land development intensity. The operation of No.13 Line encourages the land development in the north suburbs of Beijing, and raises the land development intensity around the stations. The FAR of new housing projects decreases by 1.0 every 3.3 km further away from the stations in suburban areas. These empirical results have important policy implications for the TOD strategy, the cost-benefit analysis and value capture strategy of rail transit construction in Chinese cities.

Theoretical analysis shows that the effect of rail transit on housing price is greater in suburbs than that in the central area. Empirical results validate this point by using the hedonic pricing method and housing transaction data nearby No.13 rail line in Beijing. In suburban areas, the housing prices within 1 km of rail stations are nearly 20% higher than those beyond that distance. However, with the development of surrounding urban transportation networks, the impact of rail transit is declining. Also, rail transit has significant impacts on urban land development intensity. The operation of No.13 Line encourages the land development in the north suburbs of Beijing, and raises the land development intensity around the stations. The FAR of new housing projects decreases by 1.0 every 3.3 km further away from the stations in suburban areas. These empirical results have important policy implications for the TOD strategy, the cost-benefit analysis and value capture strategy of rail transit construction in Chinese cities.

Objective. To examine the influence of fear of crime on walking for participants in a longitudinal study of residents in new suburbs.
Methods. Participants (n = 485) in Perth, Australia, completed a questionnaire about three years after moving to their neighbourhood (2007-2008), and again four years later (2011-2012). Measures included fear of crime, neighbourhood perceptions and walking (min/week). Objective environmental measures were generated for each participant's neighbourhood, defined as the 1600 m road network distance from home, at each time-point. Linear regression models examined the impact of changes in fear of crime on changes in walking, with progressive adjustment for other changes in the built environment neighbourhood perceptions and demographics.
Results. An increase in fear of crime was associated with a decrease in residents' walking inside the local neighbourhood. For each increase in fear of crime (i.e., one level on a five-point Likert scale) total walking decreased by 22 min/week (p = 0.002), recreational walking by 13 min/week (p = 0.031) and transport walking by 7 min/week (p = 0.064).
Conclusion. This study provides longitudinal evidence that changes in residents' fear of crime influence their walking behaviours. Interventions that reduce fear of crime are likely to increase walking and produce public health gains. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc.

This paper examines BRT station walk access patterns in rapidly urbanizing China and the relationship between bus rapid transit (BRT) station context and corridor type and the distance people will walk to access the system (i.e., catchment area). We hypothesize that certain contextual built environment features and station and right-of-way configurations will increase the walk-access catchment area; that is, that urban design influences users' willingness to walk to BRT. We base our analysis on 1233 user surveys, conducted at 19 BRT stations along three existing (as of summer 2009) BRT corridors in the city of Jinan. Ordinary least squares regression is applied to estimate the relationship between walk access distances and aggregate station- and corridor-area characteristics, controlling for individual- and trip-specific attributes. The results suggest that people walk farther to BRT stations when the walking environment has certain features (median transit-way station location, shaded corridors, busy and interesting). Trip and trip maker characteristics play a relatively minor role in defining BRT walk access distance. Implications include the need for flexible transit station catchment area definitions in identifying transit-oriented development opportunities and estimating system demand. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

Background. Neighborhood built environment may influence residents' physical activity, which in turn, affects their health. This study aimed to determine the associations between perceived built environment and leisure-time physical activity in Hangzhou, China.
Methods. 1440 participants aged 25-59 were randomly selected from 30 neighborhoods in three types of administrative planning units in Hangzhou. International Physical Activity Questionnaire long form and NEWS-A were used to obtain individual-level data. The China Urban Built Environment Scan Tool was used to objectively assess the neighborhood-level built environment. Multi-level regression was used to explore the relationship between perceived built environment variables and leisure-time physical activities. Data was collected in Hangzhou from June to December in 2012, and was analyzed in May 2013.
Results. Significant difference between neighborhood random variations in physical activity was identified (P = 0.0134); neighborhood-level differences accounted for 3.0% of the variability in leisure-time physical activity. Male residents who perceived higher scores on access to physical activity destinations reported more involvement in leisure-time physical activity. Higher scores on perception of esthetic quality, and lower on residential density were associated with more time in leisure-time walking in women.
Conclusions. The present study demonstrated that perceived urban built environment attributes significantly correlate with leisure-time physical activity in Hangzhou, China. (C) 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.