In response to ecosystem degradation from rapid economic development, China began investing heavily in protecting and restoring natural capital starting in 2000. We report on China's first national ecosystem assessment (2000-2010), designed to quantify and help manage change in ecosystem services, including food production, carbon sequestration, soil retention, sandstorm prevention, water retention, flood mitigation, and provision of habitat for biodiversity. Overall, ecosystem services improved from 2000 to 2010, apart from habitat provision. China's national conservation policies contributed significantly to the increases in those ecosystem services. Copyright © 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Ecosystem management that attempts to maximize the production of one ecosystem service often results in substantial declines in the provision of other ecosystem services. For this reason, recent studies have called for increased attention to development of a theoretical understanding behind the relationships among ecosystem services. Here, we review the literature on ecosystem services and propose a typology of relationships between ecosystem services based on the role of drivers and the interactions between services. We use this typology to develop three propositions to help drive ecological science towards a better understanding of the relationships among multiple ecosystem services. Research which aims to understand the relationships among multiple ecosystem services and the mechanisms behind these relationships will improve our ability to sustainably manage landscapes to provide multiple ecosystem services.

Nature provides a wide range of benefits to people. There is increasing consensus about the importance of incorporating these “ecosystem services” into resource management decisions, but quantifying the levels and values of these services has proven difficult. We use a spatially explicit modeling tool, Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST), to predict changes in ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, and commodity production levels. We apply InVEST to stakeholder‐defined scenarios of land‐use/land‐cover change in the Willamette Basin, Oregon. We found that scenarios that received high scores for a variety of ecosystem services also had high scores for biodiversity, suggesting there is little tradeoff between biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services. Scenarios involving more development had higher commodity production values, but lower levels of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services. However, including payments for carbon sequestration alleviates this tradeoff. Quantifying ecosystem services in a spatially explicit manner, and analyzing tradeoffs between them, can help to make natural resource decisions more effective, efficient, and defensible.

Trade-offs and synergies -widely exist among ecosystem services, which is the core of ecology, geography and resources sciences. Deepening the understandings of the spatial characteristics, driving mechanism, and scale effects of trade-offs and synergies will no doubt shed light on human well-being and the “win-win” policy of environment and human. This paper identified the norms related to trade-offs and synergies of eco-services, and then clarified the theoretical foundation of this topic was clarified. Following that, the driving mechanism and scale effects of trade-offs and synergies of eco-services were investigated. Finally, we proposed future direction and questions for research work, including improving classification and assessment method on ecosystem services, expanding quantitative approaches on trade-offs and synergies of eco-system, and policy oriented ideology to sustainable development of environment and human.

生态系统服务之间存在的此消彼长的权衡或彼此增益的协同关系,是生态系统服务管理研究的重要内容。科学理解生态系统服务权衡/协同的作用特征、表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应,对于提升人类福祉和实现人类社会和生态系统的“双赢”有重要意义,也是当前生态经济学、环境经济学、地理学等众多学科的研究热点和前沿。在综合分析国内外相关文献的基础上,总结了生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的理论基础,评述了生态系统服务权衡/协同表现形式、驱动机制和尺度效应的国内外研究进展和不足,并进一步探讨和展望了未来生态系统服务权衡/协同研究的重要内容,包括生态系统服务分类和评估优化,服务之间相互作用的量化模型、与自然—人文复合系统之间的反馈机制和尺度效应。

The better understanding of the trade-off and synergy relationship between different services is the foundation for the sustainable management of decision-making of various ecosystem services. In 2018, the national key special project titled as “Typical fragile ecological restoration and protection research” clearly pointed out that it was necessary to optimize the ecosystem services pattern of “Two ecological barriers and three shelters”, and the optimization of services is inseparable from the accurate understanding of trade-offs and synergies. Therefore, it is important and urgent to carry out trade-offs and synergies research in National Barrier Zone ecosystem services on a national scale. In this paper, the RUSLE model, CASA model and InVEST water yield model were used to evaluate the spatial distribution pattern of soil conservation, carbon sequestration and water yield services in the National Barrier Zone during 2000-2015, and to analyze the trends of the three ecosystem services. Correlation analysis and root mean square deviation were used to quantify the trade-offs and synergies between different services in the overall aspect and spatial aspect of each sub-barrier zone. The conclusions are as follows: (1) The spatial pattern of three ecosystem services of National Barrier Zone decreased from southeast to northwest and temporally, soil retention and water yield increased significantly with slope of 20.64 t/ (km 2·a) and 4.13 mm/a, respectively. Carbon sequestration showed a slight upward trend (p=0.96). The promotion of services is significantly helpful to the protection of national ecological security. (2) The correlation coefficient among soil retention, carbon sequestration and water production was greater than 0, indicating that the three ecosystem services were synergistic in all sub-barrier zones. Spatially, there is a strong heterogeneity between the trade-offs and synergies, and it is found that the pixel ratio of trade-off between carbon sequestration and water production is 49%, while that between carbon sequestration and soil retention is 27% in the forest barrier of Northeast China. Therefore, it is highly recommended to consider the differences of services in the trade-off relationship among all the sub-barrier zones and spatial areas to make the policy for the construction of sustainable ecological environment.

对不同服务间存在的此消彼长的权衡关系和相互增益的协同关系的正确认知,是开展多种生态系统服务可持续管理决策的前提。2018年国家重点专项“典型脆弱生态修复与保护研究”中明确指出要优化“两屏三带”生态系统服务格局,而服务的优化离不开对权衡与协同关系的准确认知。因此,在国家尺度上开展国家屏障区生态系统服务权衡与协同研究具有重要性和迫切性。本文采用RUSLE模型、CASA模型和InVEST产水模型分别评估国家屏障区2000—2015年土壤保持、固碳和产水服务的空间分布格局,并分析三种服务的变化趋势,采用相关分析法和均方根偏差法量化不同服务在各子屏障带整体和空间上的权衡与协同关系。结论如下：① 国家屏障区的三项服务在空间上均呈现由东南向西北减少的格局, 而在时间上,土壤保持与产水显著增加(p2</sup>·a)和4.13mm/a,而固碳呈现微弱的上升趋势(p=0.96),服务的提升有利于保障国家生态安全。② 在各子屏障带整体上,土壤保持、固碳及产水间相关系数基本大于0（p

Forest ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies are important research topics for several disciplines. The multi-scale analysis of service trade-offs and synergies assists in the implementation of more effective forest resource management. Based on multi-source data including forest distribution, topography, NDVI, meteorology and soil conditions, key forest ecosystem services, including total forest volume, carbon storage, water yield, soil retention and habitat quality were mapped and evaluated for the Funiu Mountain Region through integrated deployment of the CASA model, the InVEST3.2 model and the ArcGIS10.2 software. The characteristics of trade-offs and synergies among different ecosystem services were then mapped and considered across multiple spatial scales (i.e., by region, north and south slopes, vertical belt) using the spatial overlay analysis method. The main results are as follows: (1) Mean forest volume is 49.26 m 3/hm 2, carbon density is 156.94 t/hm 2, water supply depth is 494.46 mm, the unit amount of soil retention is 955.4 t/hm 2, and the habitat quality index is 0.79. (2) The area of forests with good synergy is 28.79%, and the area of forests with poor synergy is 10.15%, while about 61.06% of forests show severe trade-offs and weak trade-offs. The overall benefits of forest ecosystem services in the study area are still low. In the future, bad synergy and severe trade-off areas should be the focus of forest resource management and efficiency regulation. (3) Synergy between ecosystem services is better for forest on south slope than that on north slope. Deciduous broad-leaved forest belt at moderate elevations on south slope in the mountains (SIII) has the highest synergies, while that at low elevations on north slope (NI) exhibits the lowest synergy levels.

森林生态系统服务权衡与协同研究已成为当前相关学科的研究热点和前沿,对服务权衡与协同关系的多尺度分析有助于更加有效地实施森林资源管理。综合森林类型图、NDVI、气象和土壤等多源数据,借助CASA模型、InVEST 3.2模型和ArcGIS 10.2软件,开展伏牛山地区森林生态系统服务评估,运用空间叠置方法从多个空间尺度（区域、南北坡、垂直带）探讨服务权衡与协同效应。结果表明：① 研究区森林生态系统平均蓄积量为49.26 m ³/hm ²,碳密度为156.94 t/hm ²,供水深度为494.46 mm,土壤保持量为955.4 t/hm ²,生境质量指数为0.79。② 区域尺度上,28.79%的森林服务之间存在高协同效应,10.15%的森林存在低协同效应,61.06%的森林存在强权衡和弱权衡效应。③ 南北坡尺度上,南坡服务之间的协同关系优于北坡。垂直带尺度上,南坡中山落叶阔叶林带（SIII）服务之间协同关系最好,北坡低山落叶阔叶林带（NI）协同关系最差。

It is of great significance to study the temporal and spatial variation characteristics of ecosystem services value (ESV) and the trade-offs and synergies among various services to realize the coordinated development of regional ecology and economy. Based on the revised equivalent factor table and combined with the land use data of 7 periods from 1988 to 2020, the study of spatio-temporal evolution characteristics of ecosystem services value (ESV) in the peripheral region of the Poyang Lake is explored by data processing and spatial analysis of GIS technology. At the same time, the ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies model is introduced to analyze the trade-offs and synergies of seven ecosystem service functions. The results show that: 1) From 1988 to 2020, the ecosystem service value in the peripheral region of the Poyang Lake increased from 57.79 billion yuan to 59.25 billion yuan, showing the fluctuation characteristics of first increasing, then decreasing and then increasing. During the whole study period, ESV of water area is the largest, followed by woodland and arable land. The main contributing factors of ESV change are water area, grassland and woodland. From the perspective of single ecological service value, the regulation service value is the largest during the study period, accounting for more than 77% of the total ESV. 2) The spatial distribution characteristics of ecosystem service value in the study area are closely related to land use types. In recent 32 years, the spatial distribution of ecological service value in the study area has shown obvious imbalance. The area with the highest ecological service value is the area with abundant water resources, and the area with the lowest ecological service value is the contiguous area with concentrated construction land. ESV significantly decreased in areas with the greatest intensity of construction land expansion, including Nanchang urban area, Jiujiang urban area, and urban built-up areas of other districts and counties. The areas with increased ESV are evenly distributed in the northeast and northwest of the study area, as well as the southeast and southwest near the outside of the study area. 3) In the study period, the synergistic relationship is the dominant relationship among ecosystem services, while the number of the trade-off’s relationship is small and mainly existed between food production and other services. The results indicate that there is conflict between food production and environmental protection, and there is competition between cultivated land and other land use patterns in the study area. During 1988-1999 and 1999-2009, the other six ecosystem services showed synergistic relationship except for food production service. From 2009 to 2020, the degree and direction of interaction among ecosystem services have changed, and the maximum value of trade-offs and synergies have increased. The trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services has a profound impact on the balanced development of regional ecological environment protection and economy. Moreover, trade-offs and synergies play an important role in coordinating multiple goals, maximizing human well-being and supporting the sustainable use of social-ecosystems. The research results can provide reference information for promoting the coordinated development of ecological environment protection and economy in the peripheral region of Poyang Lake.

基于修订的当量因子表，结合1988—2020年7期土地利用数据，运用GIS数据处理和空间分析等方法探究了鄱阳湖环湖区生态系统服务价值的时空演变特征，同时引入生态系统服务权衡协同度模型对食物生产、水文调节、土壤保持等7项生态服务功能进行权衡与协同分析。结果表明：① 1988—2020年鄱阳湖环湖区生态系统服务价值从577.95亿元增至592.50亿元，呈先增后减再增的波动变化特征。② 生态系统服务价值的空间分布表现为明显的不均衡性，ESV显著减少的区域为南昌市区、九江市区以及其它各区县的城镇建成区，生态系统服务价值增加的区域均匀分布在研究区东北和西北地区以及靠近研究区外侧的东南和西南地区。③ 协同关系为生态系统服务之间的主导关系，权衡关系较少且主要存在于食物生产与其他服务之间。

In order to reveal the spatial distribution pattern of food production in Hebei Province, and formulate regional development of food safety policy suitable to local conditions, this paper using the Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) combined with GIS spatial analytical technology and structured spatial adjacent matrix, analyzed spatio-temporal changes and regulations in grain production of 138 counties in Hebei Province of China from 1986 to 2006. Research showed that grain production presented aggregated global spatial patterns at provincial level with an average Moran&rsquo;s <em>I</em> index of 0.346. Grain yield shows significant local spatial clustering pattern, distributing mainly in the Tangshan-Shijiazhuang piedmont high-yield area (HH) and the Zhangjiakou-Bashang Plateau and Chengde low-producing areas (LL). Counties fell into the quadrant of the HH and LL accounted for 55.07%, 66.67% and 71.74% of the total sample size in 1986, 1996 and 2006, respectively. Grain production has a strong spatial correlation, a significant pattern of local clustering, and aggregation in the study phase, as well as continuous enhancement in the local context in Hebei Province; but it also reflects the spatial heterogeneity in distribution of grain yield, showing the local distribution pattern of discrete and the weakening degree of dispersion. The study also revealed, through the average center model, the focus of grain production has shifted 42.7 km to the north-southwest direction in the region. The dialectical relationship between economic development and intensive land use is the main reason for the focus transfer of rain production. Grain production in Hebei Province is divided into climate yield and economic yield, correlation analysis showed that input factors affecting grain production from 1986 to 2006 are diversified. The main factors which affected food production are the effective irrigated area, fertilizer application rate, the total power of farm machinery, grain sown area and so on. Finally, policies and measures of regional food safety were proposed, based on space difference research of the grain production.

为揭示河北省粮食产量空间格局分布特征,因地制宜地制定区域粮食安全生产政策,论文运用ESDA空间相关分析理论结合GIS技术,分析了1986&mdash;2006年河北省138个县的粮食产量空间差异变化规律、特征和成因,并提出相应的粮食安全生产政策与措施。研究结果表明:研究期内省域范围内粮食产量Moran&rsquo;s I指数的平均值为0.346,存在较强的空间聚集格局;粮食产量局部空间集聚显著区主要分布在唐山&mdash;石家庄山前平原区高产区(HH)和张家口&mdash;承德坝上高原低产区(LL),1986年、1996年、2006年落入HH和LL象限的县分别占总样本数的55.07%、66.67%和71.74%,粮食产量空间集聚效果显著;20 a内粮食产量重心由北向西南方向转移42.7 km;粮食产量的主要影响因素为有效灌溉面积、化肥施用量、农业机械总动力、粮食播种面积等。

China is one of the countries facing the most serious water shortage crisis.In recent years,the water problem has become more and more projecting,especially for urban area where water shortage has been a common problem-water demand is mounting up rapidly due to population burgeon and improvement of living people's standards.The serious dearth of water has turned out to be a bottleneck in the region's social and economic development,which makes the research on water resource more pressing.In this paper,we mainly study the water resources carrying capacity(WRCC),as the groundwork of the study of water resources security stratagem,which plays an important role in the harmonious development of regional water-ecology-socio-economy complex system.Jingjinji region located in the Haihe River valley is chosen as a typical area to study the water shortage problem.This region includes Beijing,Tianjin and eight cities in Heibei province:Shijiazhuang,Tangshan,Qinhuangdao,Baoding,Zhangjiakou,Chengde,Cangzhou and Langfang,which is around Greater Beijing Economic Hub and is the core area of the Bohai Bay Trade Hub.Mean while it is severely short of water resources,the average water resources of which is only 370&times;108m3,1.3% less than the national average level,but it carries about 10% of the national population,food and GDP. A model of water resources is developed for analyzing the carrying capacity of water resources in different years in this region.The model for calculating WRCC is established by taking the "population capacity capacity" as its synthetic index and using the system optimizati-on method.And a formula of load factors is also used to compute the potential of water resources in different areas. The final results indicate that:1)There are still 684&times;108m3 of potential water resources which come from rain and flood in the region,and could be exploited.2)In the years of normal precipitation(p=50%),according to the "having enough to eat and wear" life standard,the population that water resources can carry is larger than that of nowadays;while,if according to the "better-off"life standard,the water resources cannot support today's population.3)In drought years,in developed area,the population can be carried by lowering the living standard,however,in underdeveloped areas,when having a long-term drought,the population cannot be supported.4)Although the water carrying capacity of Jingjinji region may be improved after completing the South to North Water Transfer Project,the living standard might not be improved,for it can be offset by the increasing population.So,the rudimentary method for solving the problem of water scarcity is stringent population control.

The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region has low per capita water resources, high water use pressure, and prominent water resources problems. Therefore, it is urgent to carry out a comprehensive evaluation of water resources carrying capacity in this area in order to provide some theoretical basis and practical experience for the comprehensive planning and efficient utilization of water resources, regional sustainable development, and so on. This study first analyzed the background of water resources utilization in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and the water resources problems faced by the region; second, based on the analysis of water resources system, a comprehensive evaluation index system of water resources carrying capacity in the region based on quantity-quality-water bodies-flow was established; finally, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and entropy weight methods were used to combine subjective and objective weights of evaluation indices, and the TOPSIS evaluation model was used to calculate the comprehensive score of water resources carrying capacity. The results show that: (1) The overall lack of water resources, the over-exploitation and utilization of water resources, and the continuous overexploitation of groundwater in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region have resulted in the loss of water ecological functions and the formation of concentrated and connected groundwater funnel areas; (2) The comprehensive evaluation scores of water resources carrying capacity in 2006-2016 show a fluctuating growth trend, indicating that the carrying capacity of water resources has been strengthened, but the total score is generally low and the pressure on water resources is grim. Based on this situation, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region urgently needs to build regional and watershed water resources linkage mechanisms, and take the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei collaborative development policy as an opportunity. According to the conditions and position in the regional development plan of different cities, urban development and industrial production should consider water resources endowments, implement the most stringent regulations on water resources management, and finally achieve the improvement of regional water resources carrying capacity.

京津冀地区人均水资源占有量低,用水压力大,水资源问题突出,因此亟需对该地区进行水资源承载力综合评价研究,以期为水资源综合规划与高效利用、区域可持续发展等提供一定的理论基础与实践经验。为此,首先对京津冀水资源利用情况进行分析,提出了京津冀水资源所面临的问题,以问题为导向;其次对水资源承载系统进行解析,构建基于量-质-域-流内涵的京津冀水资源承载力综合评价指标体系;最后利用AHP、熵权法对评价指标进行主客观组合赋权,借助TOPSIS评价模型对水资源承载力进行综合得分计算。结果表明：①京津冀地区水资源总量匮乏,水资源过度开发利用,地下水持续超采等已经导致该地区水生态功能退化,形成了集中连片的地下水漏斗区等;②通过对研究区水资源承载力评价计算,2006—2016年京津冀水资源承载力综合评价得分总体上呈现波动式增长态势,表明水资源承载力有所增强,但整体分值不高,水资源压力形势依然严峻。基于此,京津冀亟需构建区域、流域水资源联动机制,以京津冀协同发展为契机,针对不同地区的发展基础与城市定位,遵循&#x0201C;以水量城&#x0201D;的城镇化政策和&#x0201C;以水定产&#x0201D;的产业政策,深入贯彻最严格的水资源管理条例,实现整个区域水资源承载力的提升。

The city of Ordos is in the central part of the ecotone between agriculture and animal husbandry in northern China, and the rapid economic development brings great pressure to the ecological environment. Ecosystem services and their inter-related changes in Ordos have great significance for the sustainable development of ecosystems in this semi-arid area. This study calculated the four key ecosystem services of food supply, carbon storage, water production, and soil conservation in Ordos in 2000 and 2010, and used the relevant analysis to explore the tradeoffs and synergies between the four services at the 30 m × 30 m grid scale and introduced the rose map. The relationship between the ecosystem services of different land-use types was analyzed. The results show that there is a synergistic relationship between water production and soil conservation, a synergistic relationship between food supply and soil conservation, a tradeoff relationship between soil conservation and food supply, and a tradeoff relationship between food supply and carbon storage. The eastern agricultural area of Ordos contains most of the hotspots of multiple ecosystem services. The production of water reduced as soil conservation and carbon storage improved in cultivated land and woodland, while in the grassland the four ecosystem services increased simultaneously.

鄂尔多斯市是中国北方农牧交错带的中心,经济快速发展的同时带来生态环境巨大的压力,该区域生态系统服务及其相互关联的变化对半干旱地区的可持续发展具有重要意义。本文基于2000、2010年鄂尔多斯市的食物供给、碳储存、产水量以及土壤保持4种关键生态系统服务供给核算,采用相关分析探究栅格尺度上4种服务之间的权衡与协同关系,并引入玫瑰图对比不同土地利用类型的生态系统服务关联特征差异。研究结果表明：①2000-2010年鄂尔多斯市生态系统服务整体增强,平均食物供给量由99.5 kg&#x000b7;hm^-2增至224.2 kg&#x000b7;hm^-2,碳储存量由8.32 t&#x000b7;hm^-2增至8.41 t&#x000b7;hm^-2,平均产水量由153.64 mm增至291.90 mm,土壤保持量平均值由47.79 kg&#x000b7;hm^-2增至59.04 t&#x000b7;hm^-2;②产水与土壤保持之间存在协同关系(相关系数分别为0.972和0.771),食物供给与土壤保持之间存在协同关系(相关系数分别为0.505、0.736),食物供给和碳储存之间存在权衡关系(相关系数分别为-0.584、-0.512);③多重生态系统服务供给的热点区主要分布在鄂尔多斯市东部;④产水量和土壤保持、碳储存在耕地和林地中呈现此消彼长的变化方式,而在草地中4种生态系统服务同时增加。

\n Beginning in 1981, a mathematical model called the erosion-productivity impact calculator model (epic) was developed to determine the relation between soil erosion and soil productivity throughout the U.S.A. By 1985 the model was ready for use in the RCA (1977 Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act) analysis. Between 15000 and 20000 epic simulations of 100 years each were performed as part of the 1985 RCA analysis. After the RCA analysis, model refinement and development continued and epic has been applied to a number of agricultural management problems. For example, epic is capable of dealing with decisions involving drainage, irrigation, water yield, erosion (wind and water), weather, fertilizer and lime application, pest control, planting dates, tillage, and crop residue management. Example applications include: (i) 1988 drought assessment; (ii) soil loss tolerance tool; (iii) Australian sugarcane model (\n AUSCANE\n ) ; (iv) pine tree growth simulator; (v) global climate change analysis, and (vi) farm level planning.\n

Forest ecosystem plays a special role in maintaining the structure,function and ecologi-cal process of natural ecosystems.At present,a series of ecological problems are becoming more and more serious because of forest damage in some regions.The accurate valuation of forest ecosystem services is very important to the reserve and rational development of forest resources in China.Forest ecosystem services are divided into four groups:provisioning services,regulating services,cultural services,and supporting services in this paper.On the basis of the service mechanism analyses,an index system for the assessment of forest ecosystem services has been established,which consists of 13 service indexes such as timber and other products,weather regulation,C fixation,water storage,erosion control,air quality purifying,nutrients cycle,windbreaks,cultural diversity,recreation and ecotourism,O2 release,and provisioning of habitat.Then,10 services of China forest have been assessed and evaluated by taking the year of 2000 as the base year.Including timber and other products provision,C fixation,water storage,erosion control,air quality purifying,nutrients cycle,recreation and ecotourism,O2 release,and provisioning of habitat.As a result,the economic values of these services are 2 325.14&times;108,1 626.76&times;108,2 134.7&times;108,136.46&times;108,41.85&times;108,372.37&times;108,194.31&times;108,6732.48&times;108,and 495.94&times;108 yuan,respectively.The total value is estimated as 14 060.05&times;108 yuan with indirect values being 11 540.60&times;108 yuan,4.6 times that of the direct values.The results show that forest ecosystems provide huge indirect values to human being besides the direct value of goods,and that the indirect values are egually important as the direct values.The focuses of forest ecosystem services and their valuation in the future should be the service mechanism and the coupling and the application of different scales data.

. To quantify the ecological consequences of recent nationwide restoration\nefforts in China, spatially explicit information on forest biomass carbon\nstock changes over the past 20 years is critical. However, long-term biomass tracking at the national scale remains challenging as it requires continuous and high-resolution monitoring. Here, we characterize the changes in the above- and belowground biomass carbon (AGBC and BGBC) of forests in China between 2002 and 2021 at 1 km spatial resolution by integrating multiple types of remote sensing observations with intensive field measurements through regression and machine learning approaches. On average, 8.6 ± 0.6 and 2.2 ± 0.1 PgC were stored in above- and belowground live forests in China. Over the last 20 years, the total forest biomass carbon pool in China has increased at a rate of 114.5 ± 16.3 TgC yr−1 (approximately 1.1 % yr−1). The most pronounced forest biomass carbon stock gains occurred in central to southern China, including the southern Loess Plateau, Qinling mountains, southwestern karsts and southeastern forests. While the combined use of multi-source remote sensing data provides a powerful tool to assess the forest biomass carbon changes, future research is also needed to explore the drivers of the observed woody biomass trends and to evaluate the degree to which biomass gains will translate into biodiverse, healthy ecosystems that are sustainable. Annual forest above- and belowground biomass maps for China are now available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21931161.v1 (Chen, 2023).\n

<sec> <p id="C2"><b><i>Aims</i></b> Grassland is an important component of the global terrestrial ecosystem and plays a significant role in the global carbon cycle. Knowledge of the spatial distribution of biomass and carbon density and their constraining environmental factors in different types of grasslands is crucial for revealing the variations of grassland carbon pool and understanding the grassland ecosystem carbon sequestration in China. The objective of this study was to determine the spatial patterns of biomass and carbon density distribution in natural grasslands of Hebei Province, China.</p> </sec> <sec> <p id="C3"><b><i>Methods</i></b> The aboveground biomass, root biomass, litter mass, and their carbon densities were investigated in 390 grassland plots from 78 sites representative of six different types of natural grasslands based on vegetation, soil and climate from 2011 to 2013. The grassland types include temperate steppe, temperate meadow, temperate mountain meadow, low-land saline meadow, warm-temperate tussock and warm-temperate shrub tussock.</p> </sec> <sec> <p id="C4"><b><i>Important findings</i></b> There were significant differences (<i>p </i>< 0.05) in the total biomass among the six grassland types, with the highest value of 2770.2 g·m^-2 in the low-land saline meadow and lowest value of 747.6 g·m^-2 in the temperate steppe. The low-land saline meadow also had the highest value in the aboveground biomass (285.0 g·m^-2), followed by the warm-temperate shrub tussock (235.1 g·m^-2) and the temperate mountain meadow (203.1 g·m^-2); the lowest value in aboveground biomass was found in the temperate steppe (110.6 g·m^-2). The litter mass was largest in the lowland saline meadow (584.0 g·m^-2), followed by the temperate mountain meadow (187.9 g·m^-2) and the warm-temperate shrub tussock (91.0 g·m^-2). The values of root biomass were 1.9-4.3 times greater than that of aboveground biomass across the six types of grasslands, resulting in average root:shoot ratio of 3.1. The root biomass was largest in the lowland saline meadow (1901.3 g·m^-2), and smallest in the temperate steppe with only 1/3 of that in the former. In terms of carbon density, lowland saline meadow also displayed the largest values among all the types of grasslands. The values of carbon density in the aboveground vegetation, litter and root were respectively 132.7, 81.2, and 705.9 g C·m^-2. In all grassland types, the biomass of aboveground vegetation and root, litter mass, and total biomass decreased initially and then increased with elevation (<i>p < </i>0.05). With the increasing accumulative temperatures >10 °C, the root biomass and the total biomass decreased initially and then increased (<i>p < </i>0.01). In this study, the warm-temperate shrub tussock mostly distributes in the rocky mountain area where the soil layer is very thin, leading to the lower biomass relatively to the temperate meadow. Therefore, climate, soil and geographical factors should be comprehensively considered when comparing the biomass among different grassland types in large area.</p> </sec>

分析不同草地类型生物量与碳密度空间分布特征及其影响因素, 揭示草地植物碳库的变化规律, 对于了解我国草地生态系统碳汇具有重要意义。2011-2013年以河北省天然草地为研究对象, 调查了不同草地类型的地上活体生物量、凋落物生物量和根系生物量以及各组分的碳密度。结果表明: 温性草原、温性草甸、温性山地草甸、低地盐化草甸、暖性草丛和暖性灌草丛6种草地类型的总生物量差异显著, 其中低地盐化草甸总生物量最高, 为2 770.2 g·m ^-2, 而温性草原最低, 为747.6 g·m ^-2, 前者约为后者的3.7倍; 地上活体生物量最大的是低地盐化草甸, 其次是暖性灌草丛和温性山地草甸, 最小的是温性草原, 分别为285.0、235.1、203.1和110.6 g·m ^-2; 凋落物生物量也是低地盐化草甸最大, 其次是温性山地草甸和温性草甸, 分别为584.0、187.9和91.0 g·m ^-2。6种草地类型的根系生物量均大于地上生物量, 是地上生物量的1.9-4.3倍, 不同草地类型根冠比的平均值为3.1; 低地盐化草甸的根系生物量最高, 为1901.3 g·m ^-2, 温性草原的根系生物量最低, 只有低地盐化草甸的1/3。在各类草地生物量碳密度方面, 低地盐化草甸的地上活体碳密度、凋落物碳密度与根系碳密度均为最大, 分别为132.7、81.2和705.9 g C·m ^-2。草地地上生物量、凋落物生物量和根系生物量以及总生物量均随海拔的升高先减少而后增加(p p

Studying the stoichiometry of halophytes will be beneficial to restoration of the vegetation in the coastal wetlands. The research object were four typical halophytes in the luanhekou. The stoichiometric characteristics of C, N and P in different plants and different vegetative organs were analyzed. Results show that:Mean change range of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus contents (212.40-291.38, 9.68-14.43 and 0.86-1.6 g&#183;kg^-1) were significant (<i>P</i><0.05),possibly indicating different nutrient utilization strategies. The order of C content of different vegetative organs was leaf > root > stem, indicating low photosynthetic rate and strong defense ability. C:N and C:P of <i>Aeluropus sinensis, Phragmites communis</i> and <i>Tamarix chinensis</i> Lour were slightly lower than the global average of 22.5 and 232. There was a significant positive correlation between N and P (<i>P</i><0.01). N is major restrictive factor for plants in the research area. There was a significant positive correlation between leaf N and leaf P, root N, root C,root P (<i>P</i><0.01); leaf P and root N, root P differed significantly (<i>P</i><0.01). There was a strong coordination between the root and the leaves of the vegetative organs to adapt to the salinization of the estuarine wetland.

滨海不同湿地植物碳氮磷化学计量特征的系统研究，能够为湿地植物组成分析及植被恢复方法制定提供数据支撑。选取滦河口滨海湿地的典型盐生植物獐毛、盐地碱蓬、芦苇和柽柳为研究对象，分析不同植物及不同营养器官中C、N、P的生态化学计量特征。研究结果表明：4种植物的碳、氮、磷含量存在明显的种间差异（P-1</sup>，显示植物对养分利用的策略存在差异性。不同营养器官碳含量均为叶 > 根 > 茎，表明研究区植物净光合强度低，增长速度慢，具有较强的防御能力。獐毛、芦苇、柽柳的C：N值和C：P值均略低于全球平均水平22.5和232，研究区域整体上植物营养元素利用效率较低。4种盐生植物N与P之间显著正相关（PPP<0.01），表明了植物营养器官根系和叶片在适应河口湿地盐碱环境具有较强的协调统一性，是盐生植物进行正常生长活动的有利保障。

As a hot spot in geography, ecology and related disciplines, ecosystem services have been playing a vital role in bridging the human society with the ecosystem. A deep understanding of the relationship among ecosystem services is a critical enabling factor for sustainable management and decision-making in multiple ecosystem services, in turn realizing the dual goals of economic development and ecological protection and thus contributing to the overall wellbeing of human. Through a systematic review of the concept of ecosystem service trade-offs, this article explores their characteristics in terms of spatial scales, temporal scales and reversibility, considering human's wellbeing at different levels as the ultimate goal of ecosystem service trade-offs and ecological compensation as a baseline method of protection in trade-offs. Such ecosystem services trade-offs are expressed by quantitative indexing and integrated modelling. While such trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services could present significant variations by spatial and temporal scales, scenario simulation and multi-objective analysis are effective ways to support decision-making in ecosystem service trade-offs. Based on these findings, the multi-scale correlation of ecosystem service trade-offs, the flow of ecosystem service based on telecoupling, and the consumption and compensation of ecosystem services are identified to be the main directions for future research on ecosystem service trade-offs.

作为沟通自然生态系统与人类社会的重要桥梁,生态系统服务一直以来都是地理学、生态学等学科的研究前沿和热点。正确认知生态系统服务之间的关系,是开展多种生态系统服务可持续管理决策的前提,有助于人类福祉的全面提升。本文通过厘定生态系统服务权衡的概念内涵,梳理了生态系统服务权衡的空间、时间和可逆性特征,将多层次人类福祉的满足作为权衡的最终目标,视生态补偿为权衡决策的基本保障途径。生态系统服务权衡关系的识别依托于定量指标法和综合模型法,且权衡关系可能随时空尺度的推移发生改变;情景分析与多目标分析是生态系统服务权衡决策的有效手段。生态系统服务权衡多尺度关联、生态系统服务流与远程耦合、生态系统服务消费与生态补偿,成为当前生态系统服务权衡研究的重点方向。

The Guanzhong Basin is the economic center of Northwest China. In recent years, with the development of the economy, many ecological environment problems have emerged in this region. Therefore, it is important to examine the dynamic changes of trade-off and synergy of ecosystem services in the Guanzhong Basin and explore their influencing factors. In this paper, many models are used to estimate the net primary production (NPP), soil retention and food supply in the basin from 2000 to 2012. And research is conducted on the spatial and temporal change of ecosystem services in different types of land covers by using Rose diagram. Then, we explored the trade-off and synergy among three ecosystem services by correlation diagram made by R software and analyzed its dynamic characteristics in the 13 years. At last, we analyzed the effect of the land cover change on the relationship of trade-off and synergy to explore its driving mechanism. The results indicate that: (1) The annual average NPP per unit area, the annual average value of soil retention per unit area and the annual average value of food supply per unit area were 1720.495 yuan/hm2, 768.889 yuan/hm2 and 167.874 yuan/hm2, respectively. From the perspective of space, the high value regions of NPP and soil retention were distributed over mountains and low value regions were over the central part of the basin. But the food supply presented the opposite pattern. From the perspective of time, three ecosystem services were increased in the 13 years. The annual average NPP per unit area, the annual average value of soil retention per unit area and the annual average value of food supply per unit area increased by 21%, 46.7% and 245.7%, respectively. (2) There were trade-off between NPP and food supply, soil retention and food supply. And there were synergy between NPP and soil retention. (3) On the whole, the trade-off of ecosystem services enhanced and the synergy weakened during the 13 years in the Guanzhong Basin. The degree of synergy between NPP and soil retention decreased. The degree of trade-off between NPP and food supply increased. And the trade-off relationship between soil retention and food supply remained stable during the 13 years. (4) From the perspective of land cover changes, the reduction of cultivated land and forest land is the main driving force of the change of relationship among ecosystem services. At the same time, it is significant to balance conflicts in land resource to use land resource better.

测算2000-2012年关中盆地的净初级生产力（NPP）价值量、土壤保持价值量和食物供给价值量,通过引入玫瑰图来研究不同土地利用类型中生态系统服务的时空差异,进而探究三种生态系统服务的权衡和协同关系,并分析其在近13年间的动态变化特征,最后研究土地利用变化对生态系统服务权衡和协同关系的影响来探究其驱动机制。结果表明：① 研究区NPP单位面积年均价值量约为1720.495 元/hm²,土壤保持单位面积年均价值量约为768.889元/hm²,食物供给单位面积年均价值量约为167.874元/hm²。从空间角度分析,NPP和土壤保持的高值区均分布在盆地边缘的山地,低值区集中于盆地中部,而食物供给呈相反格局。从时间角度分析,三种生态系统服务均呈现增加的趋势。2000-2012年,NPP单位面积价值量增幅为21%,土壤保持单位面积价值量增幅为46.7%,食物供给单位面积价值量增幅为245.7%。② NPP与土壤保持呈现协同关系,而NPP与食物供给、土壤保持与食物供给呈现权衡关系。③ 13年来关中盆地生态系统服务呈现冲突加强协同减弱的趋势。具体而言,NPP与土壤保持的协同关系表现出明显的下降趋势,NPP与食物供给的权衡关系逐渐增强,而土壤保持与食物供给的权衡关系在13年间基本保持稳定状态。④ 从土地利用变化的角度看,研究区生态系统服务权衡增加协同减少主要归因于耕地和林地的大量减少。同时,权衡土地资源利用中各类冲突对于土地资源的优化使用也有重大的意义。

In this paper we propose an ecosystem service framework to support integrated water resource management and apply it to the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia. Water resources in the Murray-Darling Basin have been over-allocated for irrigation use with the consequent degradation of freshwater ecosystems. In line with integrated water resource management principles, Australian Government reforms are reducing the amount of water diverted for irrigation to improve ecosystem health. However, limited understanding of the broader benefits and trade-offs associated with reducing irrigation diversions has hampered the planning process supporting this reform. Ecosystem services offer an integrative framework to identify the broader benefits associated with integrated water resource management in the Murray-Darling Basin, thereby providing support for the Government to reform decision-making. We conducted a multi-criteria decision analysis for ranking regional potentials to provide ecosystem services at river basin scale. We surveyed the wider public about their understanding of, and priorities for, managing ecosystem services and then integrated the results with spatially explicit indicators of ecosystem service provision. The preliminary results of this work identified the sub-catchments with the greatest potential synergies and trade-offs of ecosystem service provision under the integrated water resources management reform process. With future development, our framework could be used as a decision support tool by those grappling with the challenge of the sustainable allocation of water between irrigation and the environment. Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Key ecological functional zones provide continuous ecosystem services and play an indispensable role in ensuring national ecological security and social sustainable development. From the perspective of ecosystem service trade-off and synergy, this paper discusses and analyzes the protection characteristics of key ecological functional areas. The data includes multi-source datasets such as ecosystem types, meteorological data, elevation data and soil data from 2000 to 2019. Methods of the dynamic degree of ecological spatial change, ecosystem service model and partial correlation coefficient were used for evaluation and analysis. This research selects the Qinling-Daba (Qinba) Mountains region with high similarity of natural and geographical conditions as the reference unit, takes ecosystem supply services and regulation services as the core content, and analyzes the trade-off and synergy relationship of ecosystem services based on the quantitative analysis of the characteristics of ecological spatial changes from 2000 to 2019. The results showed that the ecological status of the study area gradually improved, and the ecosystem tended to be stable after the delimitation of key ecological functional zones. The service capacity of key ecological functional zones is gradually increasing, and the average net primary productivity, total soil conservation and total water conservation are higher than those outside the key ecological functional zones by 25.95 gC/m2, 5.81×108 t and 24.95×108 m3, respectively. The synergy between soil conservation services and ecosystem supply services was positively correlated with the improvement of ecological status. Due to the impact of precipitation, the synergistic relationship between water conservation services and ecosystem supply services after 2010 became worse. Overall, the designation of key ecological functional areas in the Qinba Mountains has driven the "quantitative growth" of regional ecological space and the "qualitative improvement" of ecosystem services. However, the "synergy" of the relationship between ecosystem services is not obvious, and even changed to "trade-off", which requires the country to make more targeted ecosystem protection and management decisions in the future, and improve the overall benefits of ecosystem and support the sustainable supply of regional ecosystem services.

重点生态功能区提供着源源不断的生态系统服务,在保障国家生态安全和社会可持续发展方面,有着不可或缺的基础作用。但是,以生态系统服务权衡与协同关系为视角,进而探讨分析重点生态功能区保护特征的研究案例相对较少。本文以秦巴重点生态功能区为评估分析区域,选择自然地理条件相似度极高的秦巴山区为参照单元,以生态系统供给服务与调节服务为核心内容,在定量分析2000&#x02014;2019年期间的生态空间变化特征基础上,分析评估生态系统服务权衡与协同关系。结果表明：秦巴山区生态状况逐渐变好,重点生态功能区划定之后,生态系统趋于稳定;重点生态功能区服务能力呈逐渐增强的趋势,平均净初级生产力、土壤保持总量和水源涵养总量比重点生态功能区外分别高出了25.95 gC/m²、5.81亿t和24.95亿m³;土壤保持服务和生态系统供给服务的协同关系与生态状况改善呈正相关;由于受到降水的影响,2010年之后的水源涵养服务与生态系统供给服务的协同关系变差。总体来看,秦巴重点生态功能区的划定带动了区域生态空间&#x0201c;量的增长&#x0201d;和生态系统服务&#x0201c;质的提升&#x0201d;,但生态系统服务之间关系的&#x0201c;协调性&#x0201d;仍然不足,甚至从&#x0201c;协同&#x0201d;转为&#x0201c;权衡&#x0201d;关系,这要求未来国家需要制定更有针对性的生态系统保护管理决策,提高生态系统总体效益,支撑区域生态系统服务的可持续供给。