宋小青
广州大学地理科学学院 国土与城镇规划研究所, 广州 510006
SONG Xiaoqing
收稿日期: 2016-08-3
修回日期: 2017-01-25
网络出版日期: 2017-03-15
版权声明: 2017 《地理学报》编辑部 本文是开放获取期刊文献，在以下情况下可以自由使用：学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等，但不允许用于商业目的.
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：宋小青(1984-), 男, 湖北荆州人, 博士, 副教授, 中国地理学会会员(S110008928M), 主要从事土地利用与都市圈发展研究。E-mail: sonniasxq@163.com
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摘要
当前,土地变化研究尚缺乏统一的理论指导。探索土地利用转型理论对构建土地变化研究的理论基础具有重要意义。本文试图梳理土地利用转型研究的缘起、拓展及启示,辨析土地利用转型与土地利用变化的内涵差异,构建土地利用转型的研究框架。结果表明：① 耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型研究对构建土地利用转型的研究框架具有重要价值;② 土地利用转型与土地利用变化在基本类型、时间尺度、空间尺度、价值主体、驱动因素、轨迹特征和结果/影响方面存在显著差异;③ 土地利用转型的研究框架涵盖转型诊断、机制研究和效应研究。其中,转型诊断的关键在于,从数量变化视角、景观格局变化视角和经营格局变化视角,以及外部性视角和政策发展视角,构建土地利用空间形态及功能形态的分析指标和转型的诊断准则;转型机制表现为人口、经济、技术、制度、文化和区位因素等土地利用变化深层驱动因素的级联驱动效应。转型机制研究应当着重探讨土地利用空间转型与功能转型的互动机制环;土地利用转型效应包括社会、经济、环境3个方面;④ 1961-2011年法国耕地利用转型能够支撑本文提出的研究框架及中国耕地保护创新。
关键词：
Abstract
Land change has been a hot topic in geographical research. The overarching and convincing theories of land change science, however, have not emerged. Establishment of land use transition theory is of significance for the theory basis of land change science. This paper attempts to establish a research framework of land use transition based on summarizing the development and implications of land use transition research and clarifying the differences between land use transition and land use change. Results show that transition research of artificial ecosystems, such as cultivated land, rural housing land and urban land, is of significance. Land use transition is distinguished from land use change on several aspects, such as fundamental types, temporal scale, spatial scale, agents, driving forces, trajectory, and results or effects. Research framework of land use transition covers transition diagnosis, mechanism research and effects research. Key issues of transition diagnosis are the establishment of measuring indices and diagnosis principles of land use spatial and functional morphologies from the perspectives of quantity change, landscape pattern change and management pattern change, and of land use externality and land use policy development. Mechanism of land use transition behaves as cascading effects of underlying driving factors of land use change, including demographic, economic, technological, institutional, cultural, and location factors. Mechanism research should place emphasis on interaction between land use spatial transition and functional transition. Effects of land use transition covers at least 17 themes relating to social, economic and environmental dimensions. Cultivated land use transition in France in 1961-2011 confirms the research framework of land use transition and is beneficial to the innovation of cultivated land protection in China.
Keywords：
从土地利用/覆被变化（Land-Use and Land-Cover Change, LUCC）研究到全球陆地计划（Global Land Project, GLP）,再到近年来,在二者基础上兴起的土地变化科学（Land Change Science, LCS）[1],国际土地变化研究凝聚了以下共识：① 土地变化研究是全球环境变化及可持续性研究的重要组成部分,但缺乏统一的理论指导[2];② 从时间尺度来看,历史的土地利用对生态系统的未来变化具有重大影响[3-4];③ 从空间尺度来看,土地变化的遥相关机理意义重大[5-6]。因此,有必要理清土地变化的时空脉络,探索土地变化研究的科学理论。土地利用转型研究即在此需求下快速发展,促进了土地变化科学理论基础的形成[1]。
20世纪90年代初,苏格兰阿伯丁大学地理学家Mather率先提出了森林转型（Forest transition or forest-area transition）假说[7-8]。尚未待学术界全面阐释森林转型的机制,英国利兹大学地理学家Grainger便于1995年在Mather启发下从国家土地利用形态（National land use morphology）变化角度提出了土地利用转型（Land use transition）概念[9]。21世纪初,土地利用转型作为LUCC研究的新途径经龙花楼研究员引入国内,并逐步进入国际学术视野[10-12]。龙花楼、DeFries、Lambin等国内外相关学者相继发展了土地利用转型相关理论[13-17]。此后,这一研究方向与中国土地利用管理重大问题不断结合,引起了社会及决策层的广泛关注。
建设用地快速扩张与宅基地低效利用并存,耕地快速减少、破碎化、质量退化与高度集约利用并存,是现阶段中国土地利用管理的重大问题[18-19]。随着城镇化发展持续推进,中国宅基地变化及建设用地扩张的未来态势如何,耕地保护的出路何在?长江沿线样带土地利用变化研究显示,宅基地利用转型已经显现,即宅基地占建设用地增量的比重随着社会经济发展由高向低转型[11-12]。同时,城市近郊至乡村腹地,宅基地功能出现分化,其功能转型显现[20]。随着经济增长与产业结构优化,建设用地扩张呈缩小态势[21]并趋于极限[22],建设用地利用转型成为节约集约用地的必然要求。欧洲发达国家、日本、韩国、美国、加拿大等国家1961年以来耕地变化态势表明,随着经济社会发展,耕地将由快速减少、破碎化与质量退化转而趋于稳定甚至恢复性增长、集中连片与多功能化[23],这预示着耕地多功能管理主导的耕地利用转型将成为中国耕地变化的发展方向[24]。此外,全国省域土地利用变化分析显示,宅基地利用转型与耕地面积由快速减少转而趋于稳定具有显著相关性,且对后者具有主导作用[25]。
显然,土地利用转型研究已林立于国际土地变化科学的热点前沿领域[1],且在国内取得了令人欣慰的成绩。国内学者已将土地利用转型的研究领域拓展至了地区尺度的耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型之说,但实质上仍然沿用土地利用变化的研究方法及视角。那么,耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型命题的提出究竟有何启示?土地利用转型与土地利用变化的内涵究竟有何差异?土地利用转型的研究框架如何?
基于以上思考,本文试图梳理土地利用转型的经典研究,研判耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型的研究启示,辨析土地利用转型与土地利用变化的内涵差异,构建土地利用转型的研究框架,为明确土地利用转型研究范式提供支撑。
从百年尺度来看,人口增长导致耕地面积迅速扩张。例如,1900-1990年全球人口增长236%,耕地面积增长了56%[26]。而耕地扩张导致以热带雨林为代表的森林大量减少。与此相伴的是,生物多样性急剧下降,水土流失日益严重,全球碳循环显著改变[14, 27-28]。21世纪,人口增长与城市化进程将继续加快,食物、木材及居住空间需求将进一步提升。那么,森林未来将如何变化?与此紧密联系的经济社会及生态系统能否持续?由此引发了20世纪80年代末以来地理学家对森林变化及其驱动机制的广泛讨论。
在多数学者集中讨论森林砍伐的经济机制以及对可持续性的影响之时,Mather通过观察欧美等发达国家森林变化提出了森林转型假说,即森林面积随着经济社会发展由持续减少转而扩张。同时指出,森林转型是森林砍伐速率下降与森林恢复速率上升综合作用的结果。人口增长率下降与农业技术进步导致的农地扩张减缓及劣质农地退耕,木材需求增长与城镇人口增长导致的森林美学及休闲价值提升,是森林转型的主要因素。
经过近20年的努力,全球环境变化与可持续性研究学界一致认为,土地利用/覆被变化应当从“人类—环境”耦合系统视角予以研究。21世纪初土地变化科学作为全球环境变化与可持续性研究的基本内容应运而生,其旨为：① 观测并监测全球范围的土地变化;② 从“人类—环境”耦合系统角度理解土地变化的机制;③ 模拟土地变化;④ 综合研究与评估土地变化的结果。土地利用转型代表了土地变化科学研究的第四大目标[1]。而这正是其能够作为一项科学理论得以提出的重要原因。除此之外,土地利用转型理论的提出还得益于土地利用转型概念的建立与机制的深化。
土地利用转型一词由Walker于1987年在分析欠发达国家森林砍伐时首次使用。森林在这些欠发达国家属于国家公有,伐木公司一般与政府签订为期1~40年的伐木合同。伐木工起初会砍掉一些树木以修建道路,随后逐步深入成熟林采伐。由于合同期较短,采伐结束后伐木工一般不会种植幼林。这些清理出用于修建道路的地块往往被伐木工遗弃。此后,农民会进入森林将砍伐过的地块开垦为农地并持续使用,森林由此萎缩。鉴于森林砍伐与采伐强度和人口增长有关,Walker从经济学角度构建了土地利用转型模型以分析合同期内采伐地被伐木工遗弃的条件,从而为森林采伐管制提供依据。显然,此时的土地利用转型是指采伐地被遗弃后经农民开垦为农地的过程[29],与土地用途转换同意。
在地理学领域首次给出土地利用转型概念的则是致力于全球环境变化研究的Grainger。他认为,食物生产及居住空间扩张往往需要砍伐森林。尤其是在森林占多数国土面积的国家（Forested countries）,森林减少率是指示土地利用演化过程的关键指标。Mather的森林转型的确可以揭示人类—环境关系,但不足以分析和模拟全球环境变化。原因在于,森林转型建立在森林面积变化分析之上。而且森林面积减少停止后可能在一段时间内保持稳定,待土地利用转型结束后才转而扩张。也就是说,森林转型可能滞后于土地利用转型[9, 30]。此时的土地利用转型是指国家土地利用形态的转变过程。而国家土地利用形态是指某一时点一国主要土地利用类型和自然植被组成的总体格局。它可以通过土地利用图或土地利用数量结构予以简化表达[9]。显然,与Mather的森林转型显著不同的是,Grainger建立的国家土地利用形态不仅揭示土地面积的变化过程,并且具有如下特征：① 地理连续统一体。它是由土地利用类型及自然植被组成的连续统一体;② 动态性。它是人类社会与自然环境交互作用、不断变化的结果;③ 限制性。它形成于一定地域边界即国家范围内[9]。
尽管Grainger更为深入地呈现了土地利用形态的内涵,但在其后一段时间科学界并不热衷于遵循他提出的形态学视角开展转型研究,而是聚焦于验证Mather的森林转型假说[31-39]。森林转型因地区而异,总体上分为“森林稀缺路径”与“经济增长路径”两种模式[40-41]。前者与木材市场需求增长、洪水等自然灾害和生态退化倒逼的造林政策等有关,是森林转型的积极机制;后者与经济全球化和局地市场因素共同作用导致的农村劳动力转移、农业技术进步与农地集约经营等有关,是森林转型的被动机制。这两种模式下,森林转型证实了人类社会对生态系统或经济系统的反馈或动态关联。由此,土地利用转型的解释框架可以综合为“社会—生态负反馈”或“社会—经济动态”。前者是指因生态系统服务供给下降或关键资源耗竭引起的自然覆被如森林向人工生态系统转换趋缓甚至转而恢复,是土地利用转型的内生动力。后者是指独立于生态系统之外的经济现代化、不同类型土地的地租相对变化、土地所有制结构变化、全球贸易发展等所致的自然恢复,是土地利用转型的外生动力[15]。
众所周知,社会与经济系统的发展与变革依赖于人的价值观,是可预测、可调控的。既然土地利用转型与社会、生态、经济系统间紧密关联,那么,社会和经济系统的变化必然映射到土地利用转型。这是不是意味着土地利用转型也可预测、可调控?土地利用转型的阶段模型证实了这一点（图1）。随着人类社会发展,土地可能经历从史前的自然生态系统向疆土开垦、生计农业、逐步集约化和集约利用阶段转型[14, 42]。诚然,转型不是自然法则,转型的程度、速度可以通过政策干预来调控[43]。同时,土地利用转型也是土地利用冲突调解的结果。土地利用冲突差异必然引致土地利用转型的差异[17]。因此,转型的模式、路径并非一成不变[15, 44]。并不是所有国家的土地都会按照以上五个阶段逐次、线性地转型,部分国家可能在其中一些阶段经历相对更长的时间[14, 42]。然而,土地利用转型的总体趋势——从原始的自然生态系统向生计农业地域收缩趋于稳定,直至集约农业地域、城镇和保护性及休闲土地扩张趋于稳定的转型——是确定的、可预测的。
图1 土地利用转型阶段模型(修正自Foley[
Fig. 1 Land use transition model (Adapted from Foley[
从以上分析可以看出,土地利用转型研究起源于森林转型假说。与后者不同的是,Grainger建立的土地利用转型概念强调经济社会发展过程中国家土地利用形态的转变。自Grainger提出这一概念至今,国际学术界一直聚焦于国家层面的森林转型研究。国内学者则立足中国土地利用管理重大问题,将土地利用转型的研究领域逐步拓展到了地区尺度的耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型。那么,这些研究对于建立土地利用转型研究框架有何启示?
从研究目的来看,对于不同类型的土地,应当针对不同的土地管理目标来研究其转型过程。具体来看,森林转型之所以成为土地利用转型的研究焦点,是因为与森林转型关联的生态恢复和木材消费不仅事关森林转型国家的发展,而且与人类命运息息相关。基于这一认识,国际学术界聚焦于研究森林从持续收缩向扩张的转型过程。对于当前中国而言,从空间的视角来看,耕地利用转型研究则应当以严格控制耕地流失、切实保障食物安全、促进农业转型为目标,重点研究耕地从快速流失向流失趋缓、停滞甚至恢复增长的转型过程,如土地利用转型阶段模型所示的生计农业及小农用地向规模化的集约农业用地转型（图1）。北美的大豆种植用地的扩张[45]以及经济发达国家耕地非农化趋缓[46]则对此做出了预示。城镇、宅基地等城乡建设用地利用转型研究应当以合理管控土地开发强度、推进土地节约集约利用、提升城乡治理水平为目标,重点研究其从快速扩张向扩张趋缓甚至停滞的转型过程,如土地利用转型阶段模型所示的城镇土地利用转型（图1）。长江沿线样带的宅基地利用转型研究[10-12, 47],以及新奥尔良及开普敦等地城镇转型过程中的城镇治理对此做出了预示[48]。因此,耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型研究具有重要价值。
从研究领域来看,森林转型从属于土地利用转型。尤其在森林占多数国土面积的国家,它是导致国家土地利用形态转变的重要原因。但正如Grainger指出,森林转型可能滞后于土地利用转型[9, 30]。这主要由于,森林收缩停止后,其他类型的土地例如城镇土地可能仍然扩张,从而抑制了森林恢复增长。也就是说,城镇从快速扩张向扩张停滞转型决定了生态恢复的进程。从这一点来看,耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型应当成为重点研究领域。
从研究尺度来看,在Grainger所处的时代,国家层面的土地利用数据和图件严重缺失。但国家是开展全球环境变化模拟以及集成全球社会经济统计数据的基本单元[9]。这正是Grainger关注国家尺度土地利用形态的重要原因。不同的研究目的所依赖的研究尺度有所不同。宅基地利用转型便是针对中国建设用地迅猛扩张、农村宅基地规模庞大且低效利用突出问题,为盘活低效农村宅基地、遏制建设无序扩张,在长江沿线样带这一典型区域被提出[10-12, 47]。因此,土地利用转型的研究尺度应当涵盖地方、地区、国家乃至全球。
3.1.1 土地利用转型的基本概念 根据Grainger的定义,考虑到地区尺度的耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型命题,将土地利用转型定义为：随着经济社会发展,一定地域的土地利用形态在长期变化过程中发生的趋势性转折,包括耕地、林地、城镇土地、宅基地等单一类型土地利用形态以及地域整体土地利用形态的趋势性转折。
3.1.2 土地利用形态的内涵 深刻理解土地利用形态是阐释土地利用转型的关键。Grainger指出,土地利用形态可以用土地利用图或土地利用数量结构表达[9]。这实质是考虑到了土地利用的空间形态。土地利用是否还存在其他形态呢?Mather提出森林转型假说之初曾指出,转型之前原始森林砍伐导致生物多样性锐减。转型之后恢复扩张的森林并不足以同质替代被砍伐的原始森林。也就是说,伴随着森林转型,森林功能呈退化态势。这正是转型后的森林面积曲线峰值低于转型前峰值的原因[8]。这就意味着,土地利用转型研究不仅应当重视土地利用空间形态的变化,也应当重视土地利用功能形态的变化。
由此,土地利用形态包括空间形态和功能形态。① 土地利用空间形态属于显性形态[16-17],具体表现为土地利用的景观格局和经营格局。其中,景观格局是指不同规模、形状的单一类型土地斑块或不同规模、形状的不同类型土地斑块在地域空间的组合形式;经营格局是指一定地域内的单一类型土地或多种类型土地被不同主体经营后呈现出的土地—经营主体组合形式。② 土地利用功能形态属于隐性形态[16-17],是指土地的不同功能的组合形式。土地利用功能具有供给或实证性和需求或规范性两方面的内涵。从供给或实证角度来看,土地利用功能是土地利用活动的多种产出或效应,由这种活动的联合生产（Joint production）特性和土地的本身属性决定,不以人的价值观为转移。从需求或规范角度来看,土地利用功能是人根据自身需要或土地利用目标赋予土地所应当承担的角色或作用,体现了土地利用主体的多元需求,以人的价值观为转移[24, 49-50]。
3.1.3 土地利用转型与土地利用变化的内涵差异 土地利用转型与土地利用变化都体现为人类活动所导致的土地属性的变化。然而,前者是后者演进到一定阶段的产物,往往与区域经济社会发展阶段相对应。二者在基本类型、时间尺度、空间尺度、价值主体、驱动因素、轨迹特征、结果/影响等方面具有显著差异。
基本类型的差异。土地利用变化包括土地用途转换和集约度变化[51]。土地利用转型包括土地利用空间形态的趋势性转折和功能形态的趋势性转折。
时间尺度的差异。土地利用变化时刻都在发生。然而,为便于监测、统计,土地利用数据的获取频率往往是一年。由此,土地利用变化通常以年为研究尺度。这也是LUCC的研究惯例。土地利用转型关注的是土地利用形态在长期变化过程中的趋势性转折。对于这种趋势性转折,在以往的森林转型研究和土地利用转型阶段模型[14, 42]中,土地利用转型通常以十年甚至百年为研究尺度（图1）。
空间尺度的差异。土地利用变化从地块、地方、地区、国家到全球均可发生。其中,地方尺度相当于村域至乡域,地区尺度相当于县域至省域。如前所述,以往的森林转型研究聚焦于国家乃至全球尺度。近年来,土地利用转型研究开始转向县域[52]、省域[53]以及跨省的经济带[10-12, 47]等地区尺度。可见,土地利用转型具有显著的区域性,具体涵盖从村域至全球尺度。
价值主体的差异。土地利用因主体而异。个体如农户或企业个体,群体如一定地域内不同收入水平或不同社会阶层的居民,以及制定并实施土地政策、作为社会公益代表的各级政府等都是土地利用变化的主体。而土地利用转型是不同群体的土地利用行为与政府的调控措施相互作用到一定程度或阶段的结果。例如,重庆山区的森林转型是农民群体的耕地撂荒、林果大量种植等行为与政府对林果业发展和生态退耕的扶持和激励综合作用的结果[39]。因此,土地利用转型的主体往往是一定地域的居民群体和作为社会公益代表的各级政府。
驱动因素的差异。LUCC个案研究表明,人口和收入水平变化等是土地利用变化的主要驱动力。但是,案例对比和关联研究发现,在制度影响下,个体/群体对经济机会的响应才是土地利用变化的深层驱动因素（Underlying drivers）。同时,全球化因素往往对其具有强化或者削弱作用,因而也是土地利用变化的深层驱动因素[54]。对于土地利用转型而言,个体响应的重要性则相对较低。从“社会—生态负反馈”和“社会—经济动态”机制可以看出,在全球化因素和制度因素的影响下,群体/社会对社会经济动态和生态系统变化的响应更为重要[15]。
轨迹特征的差异。土地本身的差异尤其是地块的空间异质性,以及土地利用主体的多元化、复杂性尤其是土地利用者个体的复杂多样性,导致土地利用变化往往具有无规则特征。而土地利用转型则是土地利用变化发展到一定阶段后引起的土地利用形态的趋势性转折,与一定的经济社会发展阶段相对应[14, 42]（图1）,因而具有阶段性。
结果/影响的差异。土地利用变化的无规则特征决定了土地利用变化的结果具有较强的不确定性。而土地利用转型是土地利用系统对经济社会发展与生态系统综合作用的响应,符合一定地域经济社会发展和生态系统演化的总体趋势。因而,土地利用转型的结果/影响是决定性的（表1）。正是由于这种决定性,往往可以通过把握以往的土地利用转型规律,来调控经济社会和生态系统的未来发展。
表1 土地利用转型与土地利用变化的内涵差异
Tab. 1 Connotation comparison between land use transition and land use change
 |
3.2.1 土地利用转型的诊断研究 诊断土地利用转型的关键在于,构建土地利用形态的分析指标以及土地利用转型的诊断准则。根据土地利用形态的内涵,从空间和功能两方面构建土地利用形态的分析指标体系。同时,从经济社会快速发展阶段面临的土地利用重大现实问题如城镇土地快速扩张、耕地及森林快速减少及破碎化等出发,构建土地利用转型的诊断准则（表2）。
表2 土地利用转型诊断准则及指标体系
Tab. 2 Principles and index system of land use transition diagnosis
| 诊断路径 | 分析视角 | 分析指标 | 诊断准则 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 土地利用 空间转型 诊断 | 数量变化视角 | 地类面积 | 从快速流失转向流失趋缓、停滞甚至 恢复增长或从快速扩张转向扩张趋缓 甚至停滞 |
| 地类面积的年变化率 | |||
| 景观格局变化视角 | 斑块数量、斑块密度、斑块平均面积、最大斑块指数、斑块形状 指数、分裂指数、聚合度指数等 | 从快速破碎化转向破碎化趋缓、停滞甚至连片集中规整 | |
| 经营格局变化视角 | 人均地类面积 | 从细碎化转向集中规模经营 | |
| 户均地类地块数 | |||
| 用地单位平均经营土地利用类型面积 | |||
| 土地利用 功能转型 诊断 | 外部性视角 | 单位面积土地利用类型的商品性 产出,如地均粮食产量、地均GDP、地均工业产值等 | 商品性产出增长的同时,非商品性产出维持稳定甚至增长[24, 55] |
| 单位面积土地利用类型的非商品性产出,如单位面积土地C固持量、非生产性生境小区面积比重、单位面积化学品使用量(负向指标) | |||
| 政策发展视角 | 生物性产品生产功能、国民经济贡献功能、家庭经济贡献功能、社会安定维护功能、就业保障功能、生态安全维护功能、景观休闲功能等功能类型数及组合结构 | 基于土地利用政策反推的规范或需求范畴的土地利用功能多样化的同时,基于指标监测的实证或供给范畴的土地利用功能向生态、景观类功能逐步凸显的方向演化,且两大范畴的功能协同演化[50] |
诊断土地利用转型的难点在于,运用可靠的方法探寻土地利用形态长期变化过程中的趋势性转折点。值得注意的是,土地利用形态变化往往具有较强的波动性。这种波动性导致土地利用形态变化存在诸多突变点。但趋势性转折点仅仅是一段时间内突变点集合中的某一个典型突变点。由此,趋势性转折点的探寻可以从突变点检测入手。比较有代表性的检测方法包括滑动t-检验、Mann-Kendall法等。根据土地利用转型的诊断准则,比较分析各突变点前后土地利用形态的变化趋势,从而发现趋势性转折点。
3.2.2 土地利用转型的机制研究 土地利用转型是土地利用变化演进到一定阶段的产物。土地利用转型机制研究应当始于土地利用变化驱动因素的识别。而土地利用变化驱动因素分为表层驱动因素（Proximate drivers）和深层驱动因素（Underlying drivers）。其中,表层驱动因素是一定地点上的直接人类活动包括基础设施建设、城市扩张、农地扩张、森林采伐等,以及环境变化;深层驱动因素通过作用于表层驱动因素来影响土地利用,包括人口、经济、技术、制度、文化和区位因素[54, 56-59]。显然,深层驱动因素的作用路径是揭示土地利用转型机制的关键（图2）。事实上,土地利用转型机制也就体现为深层驱动因素沿作用路径的级联驱动效应。
文化因素包括土地伦理观和土地价值观,往往作为约定俗成的非正式制度内嵌于一定地域的某一社会经济发展阶段。它影响着土地所有制、土地利用制度、土地管理制度等正式制度的形成与运行[60-61],并与正式制度以及全球化、全球环境变化等背景条件共同决定土地管理模式。具体来看,重土地的资源属性、忽视其环境属性的地域文化,往往催生出致力于片面追求土地的商品性产出增长的正式制度。不断增长的商品性产出需求致使土地的稀缺性日益增强。对此,土地往往被配置在边际产出最大的功能上。在这种新古典经济学思想指导之下,土地利用逐步走向“专业化”,土地的联合生产特性被忽视,土地多种功能之间的耦合联系被割裂,从而衍生出土地单功能管理模式[24]。随着经济发展,被配置在不同功能上的土地的地租及其与其他生产要素如劳动力、机械、原料等价格的相对关系逐步分化。当这种相对关系变动到地租相对于其他生产要素的价格优势开始下降之时,土地利用投入会随之下降,由此导致土地利用集约度下降。直至地租不足以抵消生产成本,也就是这一功能的土地利用已经得不偿失,土地利用主体就会放弃这一功能,从而发生土地用途转换。同理,从土地要素间的关系来看,土地利用主体将逐步降低对低地租产出土地的投入甚至放弃对其使用,从而发生土地用途转换。综合不同区位上的土地用途转换便会引发土地利用空间转型。显然,低地租产出能力的土地例如粮食作物用地、林地等具有向高地租产出的土地例如城市用地、经济和园艺作物用地等转换的“天然动力”。这势必威胁粮食安全和生态安全。也就说,土地单功能管理模式下的土地利用空间转型并不一定符合公共利益需求。当社会所需的粮食安全和生态安全被突破时,转型的结果必然作为“社会—生态负反馈”作用于文化因素和正式土地制度,倒逼土地单功能管理模式优化并引发新一轮的土地利用空间转型,甚至倒逼土地单功能管理模式向土地多功能管理模式发展。深层驱动因素沿以上路径形成的级联驱动效应也就构成了土地利用空间转型机制。在这种级联效应中,土地利用集约度与土地利用空间形态之间的耦合关系、土地利用空间形态与社会—生态负反馈之间的耦合关系理应成为研究的关键问题。
除了由上述“社会—生态负反馈”倒逼所致以外,土地多功能管理模式也可以由文化因素直接诱导。具体来看,土地的资源属性和环境属性并重的地域文化,聚焦于人与自然的互惠关系,强调在保证生态系统恢复力前提下可持续利用生态系统服务,以应对未来的不确定性。这往往催生出致力于协调具有增长型机制的土地利用系统与具有稳定型机制的生态系统[62]的正式制度。协调二者的关键在于促进多种功能在同一土地上协同演化（Land sharing）[63-66],减少土地利用的外部性。在这种可持续经济学[67-70]思想指导之下,充分理解土地的联合生产特性并权衡、协调土地的多种功能成为必然,由此衍生出土地多功能管理模式[14]。这一模式要求显化土地的非商品性产出价值包括生态系统的调节服务价值和支持服务价值,并将其反哺于生态系统管理,而不是被土地所有者全部无偿占有。而这部分价值即构成了生态地租[71-72]。随着经济发展,土地的非商品性产出需求日益增长,生态地租及其相对于其他生产要素如劳动力、机械、原料等的价格优势逐步提升。由此带动土地利用投入呈上升态势,土地利用集约度随之提高。同时,生态地租反哺带来生态系统管理水平提升。土地利用集约度将被控制在生态系统管理的目标范围内,二者的正向协同演化促成土地多功能利用乃至土地利用功能重构,进而实现土地利用功能转型。显然,功能转型与人类对土地的非商品性产出需求息息相关。而非商品性产出需求受社会经济发展水平制约。这就要求功能转型必须符合并服务于社会经济发展。因此,功能转型的结果必将作为“社会—经济正反馈”作用于文化因素和正式土地制度,引致土地多功能管理模式优化及新一轮的土地利用功能转型。深层驱动因素沿以上路径形成的级联驱动效应也就构成了土地利用功能转型机制。在这种级联效应中,土地利用集约度与土地利用功能形态之间的耦合关系、土地利用功能形态与经济社会发展水平之间的耦合关系理应成为研究的关键问题。
此外,土地利用功能转型还将反作用于土地利用空间转型。功能转型之后,在这场转型中所形成的土地多功能利用及土地多功能管理模式将在下一场转型来临之前被转化为土地优化配置的动力。这将从地域整体上重构土地利用景观格局和经营格局,从而促成新一轮的土地利用空间转型。这也就构成了土地利用功能转型对空间转型的调控机制。其中,土地利用功能形态与土地利用景观格局之间的耦合关系、土地利用功能形态与土地利用经营格局之间的耦合关系应当成为研究的关键问题。
综上,土地利用转型机制体现为土地利用空间转型与功能转型的互动机制环,包括：人口、经济、技术、制度、文化和区位因素级联驱动形成的空间转型机制和功能转型机制以及功能转型对空间转型的调控机制。而这一互动机制环实质上揭示的是社会—体制系统、社会—经济系统和社会—生态系统之间的互动（图3）。此外,从功能转型机制分析可以看出,土地多功能管理是土地管理的发展方向。那么,研究实施土地多功能管理,发挥功能转型对空间转型的调控作用,是推进土地利用转型的关键。
图3 土地利用转型与社会、体制、经济和生态系统的互馈(修正自龙花楼[
Fig. 3 Role of land use transition in the multi-interaction of the socio-institutional-economic-ecological system (Adapted from Long[
3.2.3 土地利用转型的效应研究 土地利用转型效应研究是评估土地利用绩效、优化土地利用政策的必然要求。由于对土地利用转型的机制理解不足、模型方法发展滞后以及数据限制等原因,土地利用转型效应研究还不够全面、深入。但学术界已开展了有益探索。从当前研究热点及未来需求来看,土地利用转型效应包括社会、经济、环境3个方面 （表3）。然而,学术界普遍将土地利用转型效应等同于土地利用变化效应,大多承袭土地利用变化的效应研究视角和方法。如前所述,无论是内涵还是机制,土地利用转型都显著不同于土地利用变化。因此,未来应当回归土地利用转型的内涵和机制,聚焦于研究土地利用空间形态和功能形态的趋势性转折对社会、经济和环境的影响。
表3 土地利用转型效应研究主题
Tab. 3 Research themes of land use transition effects
| 转型效应 | 研究主题 |
|---|---|
| 社会效应 | 农民生计[74]、减贫、公共健康[75]、粮食安全、城乡一体化[76]… |
| 经济效应 | 经济增长、产业转型、居民收入、农业增长、能源消费[77]… |
| 环境效应 | 水环境[78]、土壤环境、碳排放[77]、洪水、农业减灾、生物多样性[79]、区域生态安全[80]… |
以可变性最强的土地利用类型——耕地为例,探讨其利用转型,以期诠释土地利用转型研究框架。耕地随着经济社会快速发展而大量减少在世界范围内较为多见[46]。20世纪80年代以来,中国经济社会发展导致耕地快速减少、破碎甚至退化[81]。由此威胁到粮食安全乃至国家安全。未来一段时间,城镇化、经济增长还将快速推进。那么,耕地利用能否出现转型?中国现阶段耕地变化还不能回答此问题。但是,探讨发达国家的耕地利用转型状况,能为中国耕地保护提供新的思路。根据世界银行2010年划分标准,发达国家人均国民收入应不低于12196美元。以此为标准,以西欧发达国家——法国为例,基于联合国粮农组织统计数据库[82]、法国统计局[83]公布的耕地数据、总人口、城镇人口、农业经济活动人口、谷物产量数据、化肥用量等,运用3.2.1节所述方法,探讨其耕地利用转型过程。
从数量变化视角来看,1961-2011年法国耕地面积净减少6.30%[82]。根据滑动t-检验结果,耕地面积滑动子序列n1 =n2 = 5,显著性水平0.01,耕地面积于1965-1968年、1978-1984年、1992-1993年、1997-2000年发生了突变（图4）。其中,1961-1984年耕地年均净减少0.40%;1984-2011年耕地年均净增长1.20%。
图4 1961-2011年法国耕地面积变化及其滑动t检验
Fig. 4 Change in arable land area and its moving test of t-tatistic, 1961-2011, France
从经营格局变化视角来看,1980-1990年、1991-2011年,农业经济活动人口人均耕地年均增长量分别为0.26 hm2、1.00 hm2 [71]（图5）。此外,从农场类型变化可以看出,1979-2010年,50 hm2以下的农场及其使用的农业用地面积明显减少。同期,100 hm2以上的农场及其使用的农业用地面积明显增长,而1988-2010年二者增长最明显[83]（表4）。
图5 1980-2011年法国农业经济活动人口人均耕地变化
Fig. 5 Change in cultivated land area per economically active population in agriculture, 1980-2011, France
表4 1979-2010年法国农场类型变化(103、103 hm2)
Tab. 4 Changes in agricultural land and agricultural holdings, 1979-2010, France (103, 103 hm2)
| 类型 (hm2) | 农场 | 农业用地 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1979年 | 1988年 | 2000年 | 2010年 | 1979年 | 1988年 | 2000年 | 2010年 | ||
| <20 | 766.73 | 556.73 | 325.11 | 211.40 | 5455.23 | 3757.24 | 1825.84 | 1237.12 | |
| 20~50 | 347.32 | 288.06 | 137.81 | 87.90 | 10962.17 | 9348.06 | 4666.14 | 2986.67 | |
| 50~100 | 114.08 | 128.26 | 122.14 | 97.40 | 7683.39 | 8708.91 | 8661.98 | 7036.39 | |
| 100~200 | 29.04 | 37.08 | 64.30 | 72.60 | 3797.58 | 4863.63 | 8655.37 | 9970.64 | |
| ≥200 | 5.50 | 6.64 | 14.45 | 20.60 | 1598.20 | 1917.95 | 4046.98 | 5734.58 | |
综上分析,1961-2010年,法国在20世纪80年代发生了耕地空间转型。具体地,耕地数量转型发生在1984年前后,耕地经营格局转型发生在1990年前后。
基于表2中的外部性视角,选取谷物收获面积产量作为耕地商品性生产功能的表征指标。考虑到欧盟农业发展尤为重视农业生产与环境的关系,在此着重关注耕地的非商品性生产功能中的生态功能。同时,考虑到欧盟共同农业政策尤为重视氮肥使用量对生物多样性的影响,在此选取单位耕地面积氮肥使用量作为耕地生态功能的表征指标。
1961-2011年,法国谷物收获面积单产从2276 kg/hm2增长到6859 kg/hm2。单位耕地面积氮肥使用量从1961年的31.86 kg/hm2增长到1989年的148.54 kg/hm2,随后下降到2010年的105.68 kg/hm2 [83]（图6）。由此表明,1961-2011年,法国耕地于1989年前后发生了功能转型,即1989年后更加注重耕地生产功能与生态功能的协同发展,耕地利用步入多功能发展阶段。
图6 1961-2011年法国谷物收获面积单产及氮肥消耗变化
Fig. 6 Changes in cereals yield and consumption of N fertilizer, 1961-2011, France
4.3.1 耕地空间转型是耕地利用对经济社会变迁的理性响应 ① 丰富的资本集聚产生了资本对土地较强的替代能力。根据世界银行数据,以2000年美元价为基准,1961年法国人均国民收入仅0.79万美元。1984年耕地数量转型、1990年耕地经营格局转型之时,人均国民收入达到1.62万美元、1.88万美元,均超过发达国家人均国民收入下限。经济发展带动资本对土地的替代能力明显增强,土地集约利用水平提高,有利于耕地消耗放缓。同时,经济发展带动耕地价值上升和农业机械化快速发展,有效遏制耕地非农化并推动耕地经营格局转型。② 快速城镇化拉动耕地规模经营。1961年,法国城镇化水平为62.94%,正值城镇化“S”型曲线的加速发展阶段。快速城镇化拉动农业劳动力快速转移,从而倒逼农场兼并以及大型农场的发展。③ 农业国际贸易拉动耕地空间转型。法国谷物贸易顺差从1961年的332.44×104 t增长到2010年的3283.17×104 t。以农作物产品出口为导向的贸易模式促使法国着力推进耕地恢复性增长以及规模化利用。④ 土地整理促进人地关系协调。自20世纪70年代末至80年代初,法国完善了土地整理立法。土地整理不仅有效完善了农业基础设施,更为重要的是,顺应城镇化发展,优化调整了耕地产权关系及地劳关系,有效保障了中大型农场的快速发展。
4.3.2 耕地功能形态转型是与居民需求升级相适应的农业转型的必然结果 二战后,为应对食物短缺,欧洲农业生产普遍以食物增产为导向。与此相伴的是,化学品大量投入引发的环境污染与生态退化。20世纪60年代后,经济社会发展带动居民需求升级,公众对环境质量和生态状况的关注日益增强。对此,欧盟自20世纪80年代中后期开始实施以多功能农业理念为核心的共同农业政策,以保障商品性产出增长的同时,保证食物品质并减少农业生产对资源环境的消耗[84-86]。由此,欧洲农业顺利转型,而法国的耕地功能转型正是在此转型中得以推进。
4.3.3 耕地多功能管理是以耕地多功能价值为基础的撬动耕地利用转型的“杠杆” 在多功能农业政策的指导之下,法国建立了资源、环境属性并重的土地伦理观,并自20世纪80年代末开始实施耕地多功能管理模式。通过有机农产品价格支持、农业补贴等方式显化了耕地多功能价值。由此改变生产要素市场中资本与土地价格比,增加耕地用途转换成本,带动小型农场向中大型农场、传统农场向有机农场转变。其结果便是1984年后耕地数量的持续净增长、1990年后的耕地经营格局转型。
① 土地利用转型研究起源于国家尺度的森林转型研究。地区尺度的耕地及城乡建设用地利用转型研究对构建土地利用转型的研究框架具有重要价值;② 土地利用转型是指,随着经济社会发展,一定地域的土地利用形态在长期变化过程中发生的趋势性转折,包括耕地、林地、城镇土地、宅基地等单一类型土地利用形态以及地域整体土地利用形态的趋势性转折。其中,土地利用形态包括土地利用空间形态和功能形态。前者表现为土地利用的景观格局和经营格局;后者是指土地的不同功能的组合形式;③ 土地利用转型与土地利用变化存在显著差异。具体表现为,基本类型、时间尺度、空间尺度、价值主体、驱动因素、轨迹特征和结果/影响的差异;④ 土地利用转型的研究框架涵盖土地利用转型诊断、机制研究和效应研究;⑤ 土地利用转型诊断的关键在于,从数量变化视角、景观格局变化视角和经营格局变化视角构建土地利用空间形态的分析指标和诊断准则,从外部性视角和政策发展视角构建土地利用功能形态的分析指标和转型的诊断准则;⑥ 土地利用转型机制表现为人口、经济、技术、制度、文化和区位因素等土地利用变化深层驱动因素沿作用路径的级联驱动效应,包括空间转型机制和功能转型机制以及功能转型对空间转型的调控机制。其中,在空间转型机制研究方面,土地利用集约度与土地利用空间形态之间的耦合关系、土地利用空间形态与社会—生态负反馈之间的耦合关系理应成为研究的关键问题;在功能转型机制研究方面,土地利用集约度与土地利用功能形态之间的耦合关系、土地利用功能形态与经济社会发展水平之间的耦合关系理应成为研究的关键问题;在功能转型对空间转型的调控机制研究方面,土地利用功能形态与土地利用景观格局之间的耦合关系、土地利用功能形态与土地利用经营格局之间的耦合关系应当成为研究的关键问题。综合来看,转型机制研究应当着重探讨土地利用空间转型与功能转型的互动机制环,而这一互动机制环实质上揭示的是社会—体制系统、社会-经济系统和社会—生态系统之间的互动;⑦ 从当前研究热点及未来需求来看,土地利用转型效应包括社会、经济、环境3个方面。未来应当回归土地利用转型的基本内涵和研究目的,聚焦于研究土地利用空间形态和功能形态的趋势性转折对社会、经济和环境的影响,而不是简单承袭土地利用变化的效应研究视角和方法;⑧ 以法国为代表的发达国家的耕地利用转型能够支撑本文提出的土地利用转型研究框架。而且,发达国家的耕地利用转型研究能够为创新中国耕地保护提供经验参考。
① 土地利用转型机制研究方面,本文着重考虑的是土地利用变化深层驱动因素的级联驱动效应,并不涉及区域土地利用之间的遥相关关系。而这种遥相关关系可能对一个地区土地利用转型与否产生重大影响[5];② 由于篇幅和数据限制,仅以法国1961-2011年耕地利用转型为例,初步验证了土地利用转型诊断与机制,并不涉及土地利用转型效应研究。土地利用转型的机制和效应研究是作者今后研究的重点。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability .https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0704119104 URL PMID: 18093934 [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Land change science has emerged as a fundamental component of global environmental change and sustainability research. This interdisciplinary field seeks to understand the dynamics of land cover and land use as a coupled -environment system to address theory, concepts, models, and applications relevant to environmental and societal problems, including the intersection of the two. The major components and advances in land change are addressed: observation and monitoring; understanding the coupled system-causes, impacts, and consequences; modeling; and synthesis issues. The six articles of the special feature are introduced and situated within these components of study.
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Key findings of LUCC on its research questions .
La desigualdad económica intergrupal o clases sociales se ha estudiado tradicionalmente basándose en diferencias de renta de fácil medición. Esta ponencia analiza una nueva tipología de desigualdad económica derivada de la crisis del Estado del Bienestar. Se trata de desigualdades de tipo intragrupal más que de carácter intergrupal o basadas en la clase social y se generan a lo largo del ciclo vital siendo, además, más difícil su detección y medida con los procedimientos actualmente disponibles.Economic inequality between groups or social classes is usually studied in terms of income differences that are easily measurable. This paper analyzes new kinds of economic inequality generated by the crisis of the Welfare State. The new inequalities are within, rather than between, groups or social classes; they are produced throughout methods of analysis currently available.
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| [3] |
The importance of land-use legacies to ecology and conservation .https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0077:TIOLUL]2.0.CO;2 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recognition of the importance of land-use history and its legacies in most ecological systems has been a major factor driving the recent focus on human activity as a legitimate and essential subject of environmental science. Ecologists, conservationists, and natural resource policymakers now recognize that the legacies of land-use activities continue to influence ecosystem structure and function for decades or centuries-or even longer-after those activities have ceased. Consequently, recognition of these historical legacies adds explanatory power to our understanding of modern conditions at scales from organisms to the globe and reduces missteps in anticipating or managing for future conditions. As a result, environmental history emerges as an integral part of ecological science and conservation planning. By considering diverse ecological phenomena, ranging from biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles to ecosystem resilience to anthropogenic stress, and by examining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in temperate to tropical biomes, this article demonstrates the ubiquity and importance of land-use legacies to environmental science and management. [References: 76]
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Global environmental change effects on ecosystems: The importance of land-use legacies . |
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Urban land teleconnections and sustainability .https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117622109 URL PMID: 22550174 [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract This paper introduces urban land teleconnections as a conceptual framework that explicitly links land changes to underlying urbanization dynamics. We illustrate how three key themes that are currently addressed separately in the urban sustainability and land change literatures can lead to incorrect conclusions and misleading results when they are not examined jointly: the traditional system of land classification that is based on discrete categories and reinforces the false idea of a rural-urban dichotomy; the spatial quantification of land change that is based on place-based relationships, ignoring the connections between distant places, especially between urban functions and rural land uses; and the implicit assumptions about path dependency and sequential land changes that underlie current conceptualizations of land transitions. We then examine several environmental "grand challenges" and discuss how urban land teleconnections could help research communities frame scientific inquiries. Finally, we point to existing analytical approaches that can be used to advance development and application of the concept.
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Evidence of urban land teleconnections and impacts on hinterlands .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.08.003 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
That urban and rural places are connected through trade, people, and policies has long been recognized. The urban land teleconnections (ULT) framework aims advancing conventional conceptualizations of urbanization and land. The conceptual framework thus opens way to identify and examine the processes that link urbanization dynamics and associated land changes that are not necessarily colocated. In this paper, we review recent literature on four manifestations of urbanization that, along the lines of the ULT framework, highlight the importance of process-based conceptualizations of urbanization and land along a continuum of land systems. We then discuss potential approaches to improve the knowledge base on how and where urbanization is driving land change.
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Global Forest Resources . |
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The forest transition .https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01723.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract The concept of the forest transition or forest-area transition is discussed in terms of the change from decreasing to expanding forest areas that has taken place in many developed countries. Similarities between historical deforestation in now-developed countries and current deforestation in developing countries are outlined. The question of why and how the forest transition takes place is posed, and some preliminary discussion of the variables that may influence it is presented. Prospects for a forest transition in the tropical world and the world as a whole are considered. -Author
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| [9] |
National land use morphology: Patterns and possibilities .https://doi.org/10.2307/215297 URL [本文引用: 7] 摘要
ABSTRACT National land use morphology, the overall pattern of actual land cover in a country at a given time, is proposed as a basic geographical concept and a key element in the emerging theory of human-environment relationships and the modelling of global environmental change. A discussion of its relationship with established geographical theory and practice is followed by a description of three applications: international static comparisons: modelling generic non-spatial and spatial trends over time; and modelling global environmental change. -Author
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Land use transition: A New integrated approach of land use/cover change study. Geography and https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0504.2003.01.022 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
该文简介了土地利用转型这一新的土地利用/覆被变化(LUCC)综合研究途径,借鉴国外土地利用转型研究成果,结合我国国情,分析了在中国开展土地利用转型研究的局限性,并选取主要由于区域社会经济发展程度的差异而导致在同一时段内含有不同土地利用转型阶段的长江沿线样带为研究区,来开展中国的土地利用转型研究.
土地利用转型: 土地利用/覆被变化综合研究的新途径 .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0504.2003.01.022 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
该文简介了土地利用转型这一新的土地利用/覆被变化(LUCC)综合研究途径,借鉴国外土地利用转型研究成果,结合我国国情,分析了在中国开展土地利用转型研究的局限性,并选取主要由于区域社会经济发展程度的差异而导致在同一时段内含有不同土地利用转型阶段的长江沿线样带为研究区,来开展中国的土地利用转型研究.
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Analysis of regional land use transition: A case study in Transect of the Yangtze River .https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-3037.2002.02.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
区域土地利用形态与其经济和社会发展阶段相对应,它随着某个区域所处的经济和社会发展阶段的变化而变化。区域土地利用转型,即区域土地利用形态在时序上的变化,它通常与经济和社会发展阶段的转型相对应。论文在划分长江沿线样带土地利用变化的区域类型基础上,结合社会经济统计数据,分析了各区段耕地和建设用地的变化。研究表明,长江沿线样带区域农村建房用地的转型基本上能反映整个样带的区域土地利用转型,且各区段所处的农村建房用地转型阶段非常明显。此外,还发现样带各区段所处的农村建房用地转型阶段与整个样带的社会经济发展水平相吻合。
区域土地利用转型分析: 以长江沿线样带为例 .https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-3037.2002.02.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
区域土地利用形态与其经济和社会发展阶段相对应,它随着某个区域所处的经济和社会发展阶段的变化而变化。区域土地利用转型,即区域土地利用形态在时序上的变化,它通常与经济和社会发展阶段的转型相对应。论文在划分长江沿线样带土地利用变化的区域类型基础上,结合社会经济统计数据,分析了各区段耕地和建设用地的变化。研究表明,长江沿线样带区域农村建房用地的转型基本上能反映整个样带的区域土地利用转型,且各区段所处的农村建房用地转型阶段非常明显。此外,还发现样带各区段所处的农村建房用地转型阶段与整个样带的社会经济发展水平相吻合。
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Socio-economic development and land-use change: Analysis of rural housing land transition in the transect of the Yangtse River, China .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.11.003 Magsci [本文引用: 5] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Rural housing land accounted for 67.3% of China's total construction land in 2000. While there are numerous studies analyzing the loss of arable land due to urban sprawl, less attention has been paid to the study of rural housing land in China. This paper develops a theoretical framework for rural housing land transition in China. It introduces a research method, which is using the spatial differentiation in regional development for compensating the deficiencies in time-series data, to analyze the rural housing land transition in the Transect of the Yangtse River (TYR). Detailed land-use data and socio-economic data from both research institutes and government departments were used to test the following hypothesis on rural housing land transition. We assume that rural housing in every region will undergo specific stages—the proportion of rural housing in the increase of total construction land will decline gradually with the development of the local economy, and the end of the transition corresponds to a new equilibrium between rural housing and other construction activities. Five regional types of rural housing land change were defined according to an aggregation index used to reflect landscape patterns. The outcomes indicated that the share of rural housing in the increase of total construction land declines gradually from the upper reaches to the lower reaches of the Yangtse River, i.e. from Ganzi–Yushu to Luzhou–Diqing, Enshi–Chongqing, Tongling–Yichang and to Shanghai–Chaohu. Each region is in a different phase of the rural housing land transition, which corresponds to a particular socio-economic developmental level. Finally, some policy implications were discussed by applying this research to land management issues. The authors argue that there are problems in the current rural housing land managerial system in China, and that the Central Government needs to define uniform regulations for rural housing according to regional socio-economic developmental level, physical conditions and rural housing land transition phase.</p>
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Land-use choices: Balancing human needs and ecosystem function .https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0249:LCBHNA]2.0.CO;2 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Conversion of land to grow crops, raise animals, obtain timber, and build cities is one of the foundations of human civilization. While land use provides these essential ecosystem goods, it alters a range of other ecosystem functions, such as the provisioning of freshwater, regulation of climate and biogeochemical cycles, and maintenance of soil fertility. It also alters habitat for biological diversity. Balancing the inherent trade-offs between satisfying immediate human needs and maintaining other ecosystem functions requires quantitative knowledge about ecosystem responses to land use. These responses vary according to the type of land-use change and the ecological setting, and have local, short-term as well as global, long-term effects. Land-use decisions ultimately weigh the need to satisfy human demands and the unintended ecosystem responses based on societal values, but ecological knowledge can provide a basis for assessing the trade-offs.
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Global consequences of land use .https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772 URL PMID: 20 [本文引用: 8] 摘要
Land use has generally been considered a local environmental issue, but it is becoming a force of global importance. Worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways, and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and urban areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. Such changes in land use have enabled humans to appropriate an increasing share of the planet's resources, but they also potentially undermine the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production, maintain freshwater and forest resources, regulate climate and air quality, and ameliorate infectious diseases. We face the challenge of managing trade-offs between immediate human needs and maintaining the capacity of the biosphere to provide goods and services in the long term.
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Land use transitions: Socio-ecological feedback versus socio-economic change .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.09.003 Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The concept of land use transition highlights that land use change is non-linear and is associated with other societal and biophysical system changes. A transition in land use is not a fixed pattern, nor is it deterministic. Land use transitions can be caused by negative socio-ecological feedbacks that arise from a depletion of key resources or from socio-economic change and innovation that take place rather independently from the ecological system. Here, we explore whether the sources of land use transitions are mostly endogenous socio-ecological forces or exogenous socio-economic factors. We first review a few generic pathways of forest transition as identified in national case studies, and evaluate the varying ecological quality of expanding forests associated with these pathways. We then discuss possible explanatory frameworks of land use transitions. We use the case of the recent forest transition in Vietnam as an illustration. Socio-ecological feedbacks seem to better explain a slowing down of deforestation and stabilization of forest cover, while exogenous socio-economic factors better account for reforestation. We conclude by discussing the prospects of accelerating land use transitions in tropical forest countries.</p>
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Land use rransition and rural transformation development .https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201204012 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
土地利用转型这一研究方向引入中国后,结合中国社会经济特点的相关研究篷勃开展。土地利用形态是土地利用转型研究的核心内容,在社会经济变化和革新的影响下,随着研究的不断深入,土地利用形态的概念内涵被不断拓展。本文在分析土地利用形态概念内涵的发展演变基础上,提出将其分为显性形态与隐性形态两种形式,并以此诠释了土地利用转型的概念模式,进而探讨了土地利用转型与乡村转型发展之间的关系。研究指出:耕地和农村宅基地这两种地类乃乡村发展与土地利用转型之重要源头。随后探讨了乡村转型发展与耕地和农村宅基地利用转型之间的相互作用关系。最后提出未来土地利用转型与乡村转型发展的研究方向,涉及土地利用转型与乡村转型发展的格局与地域类型、互馈作用机理与动力机制、资源与环境效应、优化调控模式和途径等方面。
论土地利用转型与乡村转型发展 .https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201204012 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
土地利用转型这一研究方向引入中国后,结合中国社会经济特点的相关研究篷勃开展。土地利用形态是土地利用转型研究的核心内容,在社会经济变化和革新的影响下,随着研究的不断深入,土地利用形态的概念内涵被不断拓展。本文在分析土地利用形态概念内涵的发展演变基础上,提出将其分为显性形态与隐性形态两种形式,并以此诠释了土地利用转型的概念模式,进而探讨了土地利用转型与乡村转型发展之间的关系。研究指出:耕地和农村宅基地这两种地类乃乡村发展与土地利用转型之重要源头。随后探讨了乡村转型发展与耕地和农村宅基地利用转型之间的相互作用关系。最后提出未来土地利用转型与乡村转型发展的研究方向,涉及土地利用转型与乡村转型发展的格局与地域类型、互馈作用机理与动力机制、资源与环境效应、优化调控模式和途径等方面。
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Land use transition and land management .https://doi.org/10.11821/d1yj201509001 URL Magsci [本文引用: 6] 摘要
<p>自21世纪初土地利用转型这一研究方向引入中国后,土地利用转型已成为当今学术界和国家行政部门十分关注的重要课题。在拓展深化土地利用转型的概念内涵,阐述土地利用转型的理论模式基础上,探讨了土地利用转型与土地资源管理二者之间的互馈机制,进而分析了土地利用转型与土地资源管理二者之间的相互影响。研究指出：决策部门应根据土地利用形态的变化适时调整土地资源管理政策措施,充分考虑目标区域所处的土地利用转型阶段,以增强土地资源管理决策的科学性。在探讨未来土地利用转型与土地资源管理研究方向基础上,强调土地利用隐性形态及其变化应当成为今后土地利用转型与土地资源管理研究关注的焦点,通过管控土地利用隐性形态的变化来创新土地资源管理政策法规及制度,提升土地资源管理水平。</p>
论土地利用转型与土地资源管理 .https://doi.org/10.11821/d1yj201509001 URL Magsci [本文引用: 6] 摘要
<p>自21世纪初土地利用转型这一研究方向引入中国后,土地利用转型已成为当今学术界和国家行政部门十分关注的重要课题。在拓展深化土地利用转型的概念内涵,阐述土地利用转型的理论模式基础上,探讨了土地利用转型与土地资源管理二者之间的互馈机制,进而分析了土地利用转型与土地资源管理二者之间的相互影响。研究指出：决策部门应根据土地利用形态的变化适时调整土地资源管理政策措施,充分考虑目标区域所处的土地利用转型阶段,以增强土地资源管理决策的科学性。在探讨未来土地利用转型与土地资源管理研究方向基础上,强调土地利用隐性形态及其变化应当成为今后土地利用转型与土地资源管理研究关注的焦点,通过管控土地利用隐性形态的变化来创新土地资源管理政策法规及制度,提升土地资源管理水平。</p>
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The impact of rural out-migration on land use transition in China: Past, present and trend .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.003 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT Although rural out-migration has significantly transformed land use at the local to regional scale, the links between rural out-migration and land use change are not well understood. This paper connects Zelinsky's mobility transition model to land use transition theory and identifies the impacts of rural out-migration on land use transition. It then explores the significant influences of rural out-migration on land use transition in China. Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China has undergone rapid and significant changes. Extensive rural out-migration has transformed China from a land-attached agricultural society to an urban and industrial society. This has produced several contrasting land use trends: increased land demand in urban areas at the expense of high-quality cultivated land, increased number of total settlement areas and emerging “hollowed villages” in the countryside. China's policies addressing these problems could benefit to other developing countries, such as restricting frontier clearing through land zoning and other ecological protection policies; encouraging nonmigrants to adjust their agricultural land holdings; protecting nonmigrants’ interest through subsidizing agricultural land, and improving rural infrastructure and farmers’ living conditions. Rural out-migration is thus a critical element in addressing the fundamental question of land use—how to balance the land demand for economic development, food security and conservation. This article explores the impacts of rural out-migration on land use change, analyzes the process of migration and land use transition and then examines how rural out-migration affects land use transition in China. This paper also explores future land use change in China, by considering the trend of rural–urban migration and the dynamics of population transition. In so doing, we try to link current rural out-migration dynamics and land use change to facilitate future research and policy considerations. We propose that in order to facilitate policymaking, further research should take a multiscale perspective: cross-country research should be based on an understanding of the dynamics and issues of rural out-migration and land use change in developing countries with different characteristics; country-level research should focus on land use change and problems caused by rural out-migration and its spatial characteristics; and community and household-level research should examine the effects of out-migration of household or household members on agricultural and other land use change.
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Key issues of land use in China and implications for policy making .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.03.013 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT The paper aims to comprehensively analyze key issues of current land use in China. It identifies the major land-use problems when China is undergoing rapid urbanization. Then, the paper interprets and assesses the related land-use policies: requisition-compensation balance of arable land, increasing vs. decreasing balance of urban-rural built land, reserved land system within land requisition, rural land consolidation and economical and intensive land use. The paper finds that current policies are targeting specific problems while being implemented in parallel. There is lacking a framework that incorporates all the policies. The paper finally indicates the current land-use challenges and proposes strategic land-use policy system to guide sustainable land use in the future.
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Functional transition of the rural settlement: Analysis of land-use differentiation in a transect of Beijing, China .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.07.011 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract Diversity, complexity and change have become the hallmarks of contemporary Chinese rural settlements. However, the literature so far has paid insufficient attention to this phenomenon from the standpoint of functional transition and related land-use change. To fill in this gap, this paper explores the functional transition of rural settlement through analyzing land-use differentiation in a transect of Beijing. Land-use changes are presented along the differentiation of land-use structure and use change of rural housing. The results indicate that there is an obvious differentiation of land-use structure from near-urban countryside to the rural hinterland. Besides that, the use change of rural housing also has regional characteristics. They are different responses to the urban sprawl, respectively from the collective economic organization and single rural resident. The regional differentiation implies a functional transition in some rural settlements, including increases of non-agricultural function and urban servicing function. Quantitative evaluation of the functional intensity and its rules on spatial鈥搕emporal evolution still need to be approached in the future.
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Quantitative study of construction land increase limit year in the economic transition stage in China .https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2011.07.001 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
论文以中国经济发展进程中的建设用地增长态势为研究起点,在把握经济发展与建设用地增长规律的基础上,提出建设用地增长极限命题;通过构建边际模型,计量建设用地增长的极限时点,进而剖析时空变化规律。结果表明:①1978—2000年间中国经济发展与建设用地增长具有周期性波动特征,两者波动周期基本一致;②中国建设用地增长极限平均时点为2047年左右,不同省(市)建设用地增长极限特征不论时间纵向还是空间横向比较,都大致沿东南—西北线依次分级;③东部地区较早达到建设用地增长极限,其中上海、江苏和广东等11个省(市)早于全国平均时点,河北、四川和青海等其余19个省(市)晚于全国平均水平,东部地区建设用地增长压力较大,中、西部地区增长压力相对较小。最后,论文提出提高中、西部地区的土地利用效率,控制粗放利用,鼓励技术创新等加快逼近建设用地增长极限的政策和建议。
中国经济转型阶段建设用地增长极限计量研究 .https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2011.07.001 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
论文以中国经济发展进程中的建设用地增长态势为研究起点,在把握经济发展与建设用地增长规律的基础上,提出建设用地增长极限命题;通过构建边际模型,计量建设用地增长的极限时点,进而剖析时空变化规律。结果表明:①1978—2000年间中国经济发展与建设用地增长具有周期性波动特征,两者波动周期基本一致;②中国建设用地增长极限平均时点为2047年左右,不同省(市)建设用地增长极限特征不论时间纵向还是空间横向比较,都大致沿东南—西北线依次分级;③东部地区较早达到建设用地增长极限,其中上海、江苏和广东等11个省(市)早于全国平均时点,河北、四川和青海等其余19个省(市)晚于全国平均水平,东部地区建设用地增长压力较大,中、西部地区增长压力相对较小。最后,论文提出提高中、西部地区的土地利用效率,控制粗放利用,鼓励技术创新等加快逼近建设用地增长极限的政策和建议。
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Cultivated land transition in China: Dual deconstruction from spatial and functional perspectives [D].中国耕地转型: 空间与功能双重解构 [D]. |
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Route of multifunctional cultivated land management in China .https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2012.04.002 Magsci [本文引用: 4] 摘要
论文立足城乡居民生存与发展需求,试图从耕地多功能角度探寻我国耕地保护的可能出路。在理解耕地多功能内涵的基础上,通过梳理耕地功能利用发展过程提出,解决耕地功能利用外部性问题,引导耕地功能利用合理竞争,从而优化耕地功能利用的社会效用是耕地功能管理的核心问题。据此,将耕地功能管理分为单功能管理与多功能管理两种模式。其中,耕地单功能管理是城乡居民需求发展过程中耕地资源管理的过渡阶段,而耕地多功能管理是耕地资源管理的发展方向。然后,就我国耕地保护、 荷兰及美国农地保护的特点分别对以上两种模式进行了实证。最后,在耕地功能管理国际比较的基础上,综合荷兰与美国的实践经验及我国的特殊性,设计了我国耕地多功能管理的实践路径。
中国耕地多功能管理的实践路径探讨 .https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2012.04.002 Magsci [本文引用: 4] 摘要
论文立足城乡居民生存与发展需求,试图从耕地多功能角度探寻我国耕地保护的可能出路。在理解耕地多功能内涵的基础上,通过梳理耕地功能利用发展过程提出,解决耕地功能利用外部性问题,引导耕地功能利用合理竞争,从而优化耕地功能利用的社会效用是耕地功能管理的核心问题。据此,将耕地功能管理分为单功能管理与多功能管理两种模式。其中,耕地单功能管理是城乡居民需求发展过程中耕地资源管理的过渡阶段,而耕地多功能管理是耕地资源管理的发展方向。然后,就我国耕地保护、 荷兰及美国农地保护的特点分别对以上两种模式进行了实证。最后,在耕地功能管理国际比较的基础上,综合荷兰与美国的实践经验及我国的特殊性,设计了我国耕地多功能管理的实践路径。
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Analysis of the coupling of farmland and rural housing land transition in China .
土地利用转型,即在社会经济变化和革新的驱动下,某一区域在一段时期内由一种土地利用形态转变为另一种土地利用形态的过程。在中国,耕地和农村宅基地乃土地利用转型的重要源头。本文综合利用2000 年和2008 年两期Landsat TM 影像解译土地利用数据及2000-2008 年国土资源部土地利用年度变更调查数据,分析了中国耕地和农村宅基地利用转型的时空耦合特征。研究表明：① 2000-2008 年期间,中国耕地面积与农村宅基地面积变化的相关系数为-0.921,呈现出明显的增减逆协同演进格局；② 耕地—宅基地变化相关系数与农村宅基地利用变化率的Spearman 等级相关分析结果表明,在耕地和农村宅基地利用的相互转化过程中,农村宅基地利用的变化起主导作用；③ 通过计算全国各省2000-2008 年间的耕地—宅基地变化耦合系数,发现期间耕地和农村宅基地利用变化耦合程度高的省份主要分布在胡焕庸线的东南部。社会经济—生物自然—土地管理三维驱动因素通过“农村人口—耕地—农村宅基地”三者之间的相互联系与相互作用驱动着耕地和农村宅基地利用的转型。然而,耕地和农村宅基地利用转型的时空耦合现象及其发生机制在很大程度上要归因于中国特殊的城乡二元结构社会体制。
中国耕地和农村宅基地利用转型耦合分析 .
土地利用转型,即在社会经济变化和革新的驱动下,某一区域在一段时期内由一种土地利用形态转变为另一种土地利用形态的过程。在中国,耕地和农村宅基地乃土地利用转型的重要源头。本文综合利用2000 年和2008 年两期Landsat TM 影像解译土地利用数据及2000-2008 年国土资源部土地利用年度变更调查数据,分析了中国耕地和农村宅基地利用转型的时空耦合特征。研究表明：① 2000-2008 年期间,中国耕地面积与农村宅基地面积变化的相关系数为-0.921,呈现出明显的增减逆协同演进格局；② 耕地—宅基地变化相关系数与农村宅基地利用变化率的Spearman 等级相关分析结果表明,在耕地和农村宅基地利用的相互转化过程中,农村宅基地利用的变化起主导作用；③ 通过计算全国各省2000-2008 年间的耕地—宅基地变化耦合系数,发现期间耕地和农村宅基地利用变化耦合程度高的省份主要分布在胡焕庸线的东南部。社会经济—生物自然—土地管理三维驱动因素通过“农村人口—耕地—农村宅基地”三者之间的相互联系与相互作用驱动着耕地和农村宅基地利用的转型。然而,耕地和农村宅基地利用转型的时空耦合现象及其发生机制在很大程度上要归因于中国特殊的城乡二元结构社会体制。
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Land Use and Soil Resources .https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6778-5_9 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT Environmental sustainability will only be achieved by maintenance and improvement of soil quality. Soil quality is considered as the capacity of a soil to function. Its assessment focuses on dynamic aspects to evaluate the sustainability of soil management practices. In this chapter, a wide perspective of soil quality and the complex task of its assessment, considering the inherent and dynamic factors, are introduced. It focuses on the possibilities of applying and integrating the accumulated knowledge in agroecological land evaluation in order to predict soil quality. Advanced information technologies in modern decision support tools enable the integration of large and complex databases, models, tools, and techniques, and are proposed to improve the decision-making process in soil quality management. Although universal recommendations on soil quality and sustainability of soil management must not be done, this chapter presents general trends in soil quality management strategies. This includes arable land identification, crop diversification, organic matter restoration, tillage intensity, and soil input rationalization.
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| [27] |
The worldwide extent of land-use change .https://doi.org/10.2307/1312380 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In the last few centuries, particularly the last several decades, the effects of land use change have become global. These global changes are not only changes in land use and direct effects, but also in the contribution to global changes in climate through increasing greenhouse gas emission. Land use change can be considered from two perspectives: the intended and the unintended effects. The question is where the balance of managed and natural systems lies. This article reviews the extent of land use change over the surface of the earth in four intervals of time: the last several millennia, the last century, the last decade, and the next several decades. Discussion focuses on the global extent of land use change with the emphasis on forest and deforestation. 35 refs., 6 figs., 1 tab.
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| [28] |
Human domination of earth's ecosystems . |
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Land use transition and deforestation in developing countries .https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1987.tb00111.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract Deforestation in developing countries frequently occurs when logging interests abandon cut plots to farmers, who then make use of the land by producing either cash or food crops. This paper presents a model of land use transition that reveals conditions under which logging interests abandon cut plots to follow-on farmers. The model incorporates key characteristics of forest utilization contracts so that the effects of particular contracts may be observed. Thus, the model serves as a basis for designing contracts that can help control deforestation.
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| [30] |
The forest transition: an alternative approach .https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1995.tb01815.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper proposes a generalised theory of the forest transition that links it with the national land use transition and forest replenishment period. It argues that the mechanisms underlying the two transitions are not identical, and that the entire forest replenishment period following the transition should be recognised as a major land use process equivalent to the national land use transition. It proposes that Mather's original model of the forest transition be modified to explicitly allow for a delay between when deforestation ends and national forest cover starts to rise.
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| [31] |
Forest transition in South Korea: Reality, path and drivers .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.06.007 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
While forest transition (FT) in South Korea began in 1955, when forest cover was only 35% of national land area, significant increases in both forest cover and growing stock really occurred in the early 1970s. Using reconstructed historical records, we empirically demonstrate that (1) FT in South Korea was mainly accomplished by the recovery of degraded, non-stocked forest; and (2) one-dimensional FT analysis using forest area alone has severe limitations in diagnosing meaningful changes in forest sustainability. The key driver of FT in South Korea was the government-led reforestation policy. The comprehensive reforestation plans, started in 1973, not only provided economic incentives to the general public by establishing clear quantifiable goals, they also promoted inter-agency cooperation and coordination, especially between the energy and forest sectors, to replace firewood with fossil fuels. These government-led efforts, accompanied by rural-urban migration, brought an increase in stocked forest area and a complementary rising average growing stock level. The case of South Korea shows that FTs can be cultivated in a relatively short period of time by a central authority, even with imperfect governance and low economic development. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| [32] |
Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity .https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608343103 URL PMID: 17101996 摘要
Abstract Amid widespread reports of deforestation, some nations have nevertheless experienced transitions from deforestation to reforestation. In a causal relationship, the Forest Identity relates the carbon sequestered in forests to the changing variables of national or regional forest area, growing stock density per area, biomass per growing stock volume, and carbon concentration in the biomass. It quantifies the sources of change of a nation's forests. The Identity also logically relates the quantitative impact on forest expanse of shifting timber harvest to regions and plantations where density grows faster. Among 50 nations with extensive forests reported in the Food and Agriculture Organization's comprehensive Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, no nation where annual per capita gross domestic product exceeded $4,600 had a negative rate of growing stock change. Using the Forest Identity and national data from the Assessment report, a single synoptic chart arrays the 50 nations with coordinates of the rates of change of basic variables, reveals both clusters of nations and outliers, and suggests trends in returning forests and their attributes. The Forest Identity also could serve as a tool for setting forest goals and illuminating how national policies accelerate or retard the forest transitions that are diffusing among nations. 61 forest area 61 forest carbon 61 sustainable forestry 61 timber resources 61 woody biomass
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| [33] |
The course and drivers of the forest transition: The case of France .https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-0167(98)00023-0 URL 摘要
Deforestation in developing countries has given rise to much concern in recent years. Until the early 19th century, many now-developed countries such as France experienced similar deforestation. Net deforestation then gave way to net reforestation: this shift is defined as the forest transition. The courses and drivers of forest transitions are not well understood: until a better understanding is achieved, it will be difficult to evaluate the prospects for comparable forest transitions to occur in developing countries. This paper aims to advance the understanding of the forest transition by analysing its occurrence in France. It concludes that the transition can be understood in terms of a crisis-response model, set in the context of a number of necessary factors. It also indicates that the forest transition was accompanied by a paradigmatic shift from the pre-industrial to the industrial forest, the former relating to local use for a diversity of purposes and the latter geared to the perceptions and needs of the urban-industrial state.
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| [34] |
The forest transition: a theoretical basis .
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| [35] |
Forest transition in Vietnam and displacement of deforestation abroad .https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904942106 URL PMID: 19805270 摘要
In some countries across the globe, tropical forest cover is increasing. The national-scale reforestation of Vietnam since 1992 is assumed to contribute to this recovery. It is achieved, however, by the displacement of forest extraction to other countries on the order of 49 (34-70) M m3, or ~39% of the regrowth of Vietnam's forests from 1987 to 2006. Approximately half of wood imports to Vietna...
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| [36] |
World Forests from Deforestation to Transition? https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0942-3 URL 摘要
The results of a multilevel and multidisciplinary approach in analysing forest transition and deforestation issues are presented. Until the beginning of the 20th century, deforestation was common in the North. During the industrialization period about a century ago, the interactions of the markets, forest policies and other sectoral policies, as well as their effective implementation, have tran...
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| [37] |
Revisiting the forest transition theory with historical records and geospatial data: A case study from Mississippi (USA) .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.09.017 URL 摘要
This study examines forest change processes, within the framework of forest transition theory (FTT), using Mississippi (USA) as a case study. The aim is to evaluate the assumption and theoretical basis of FTT with quantitative data, and to propose changes in forest management policy as a potential driver for reforestation. We compiled a number of historical records, geospatial data, and time series forest mapping products to reconstruct the last 100 years of forest trajectory. Forest changes are studied in relation to changes in society, over a range of temporal and spatial scales. Details of forest dynamics (e.g., the rate and extent of forest gain and loss) were quantified, while considering the ecological properties of the secondary forests. Mississippi forests are intensively managed and fragmented secondary forests, while regenerated entirely through plantation. The quantified forest transition (FT) curve indicated that forest dynamics have been nonlinear and have involved multiple reversals, resulting in multiple periods of forest expansion. The spatial and temporal analysis with time series remote sensing data over the last 30 years reveals that Mississippi forests have experienced very frequent changes and disturbance, even during the period of forest expansion. These change patterns are not apparent when considering total forest area estimates. The result illustrates that the "forest scarcity pathway" of FTT (Rudel et al., Global Environmental Change Part A 15(1) (2005) 23-31) worked to reverse the deforestation trend for the initial FT period. However, regenerated forests have experienced another episode of FT and expansion, and this cannot be explained by the forest scarcity pathway. Rather, the case of Mississippi suggests an alternative pathway (Mather, International Forestry Review 9(1) (2007) 491-502; Lambin and Meyfroidt, Land Use Policy 27 (2010) 108-118), distinct from the previous work, and highlights the importance of changes in policy incentives to account for forest recovery. The conceptual basis of FTT proposed by Mather (Area 24(4) (1992) 367-379) and Grainger (Area 27(3) (1995) 242-251) is revisited, showing how two alternative views are complementary, providing explanation for the repeated patterns of FT. This study presents empirical evidence to understand the theoretical basis and assumptions of FTT and suggests a new path for FT, "forest management policy pathway".
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Deforestation and forest transition: Theory and evidence in China//Palo M, Vanhanen H. World Forests from Deforestation to Transition? https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0942-3_3 URL 摘要
A general theoretical framework on deforestation and forest transition is presented followed by empirical evidence from China. Relative scarcities of food, timber and environmental goods resulting fro
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| [39] |
The micro-mechanism of forest transition: A case study in the mountainous areas of Chongqing .
20世纪80年代以来,我国进入森林转型阶段。系统认识森林转型的微观机制,有利于提出针对性的促进森林面积增长的措施,而已有研究未做深入分析。利用重庆市＂两翼＂地区的1 015份农户调查数据,论文从农户尺度分析了森林转型的微观机制及其主要影响因素。结果显示：在农户尺度上,森林转型的微观机制有薪柴替代、耕地撂荒、牲畜养殖数量减少及林果种植。农业劳动力向非农就业转移能够加快薪柴替代、林果业发展,同时也能造成耕地撂荒、牲畜养殖数量减少。此外,提高煤炭等替代能源的可获得性及加快政府沼气政策的实施和普及能加快薪柴替代;耕作半径、劣质地及野猪破坏会造成耕地撂荒,而地质灾害隐患和缺少灌溉及其他农户耕地撂荒行为等也对耕地撂荒具有一定影响;地方鼓励政策会加快林果业发展。最后,提出了加快森林植被恢复的建议。
森林转型的微观机制: 以重庆市山区为例 .
20世纪80年代以来,我国进入森林转型阶段。系统认识森林转型的微观机制,有利于提出针对性的促进森林面积增长的措施,而已有研究未做深入分析。利用重庆市＂两翼＂地区的1 015份农户调查数据,论文从农户尺度分析了森林转型的微观机制及其主要影响因素。结果显示：在农户尺度上,森林转型的微观机制有薪柴替代、耕地撂荒、牲畜养殖数量减少及林果种植。农业劳动力向非农就业转移能够加快薪柴替代、林果业发展,同时也能造成耕地撂荒、牲畜养殖数量减少。此外,提高煤炭等替代能源的可获得性及加快政府沼气政策的实施和普及能加快薪柴替代;耕作半径、劣质地及野猪破坏会造成耕地撂荒,而地质灾害隐患和缺少灌溉及其他农户耕地撂荒行为等也对耕地撂荒具有一定影响;地方鼓励政策会加快林果业发展。最后,提出了加快森林植被恢复的建议。
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| [40] |
Forest transitions: towards a global understanding of land use change .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.11.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Places experience forest transitions when declines in forest cover cease and recoveries in forest cover begin. Forest transitions have occurred in two, sometimes overlapping circumstances. In some places economic development has created enough non-farm jobs to pull farmers off of the land, thereby inducing the spontaneous regeneration of forests in old fields. In other places a scarcity of forest products has prompted governments and landowners to plant trees in some fields. The transitions do little to conserve biodiversity, but they do sequester carbon and conserve soil, so governments should place a high priority on promoting them.
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| [41] |
Forest transition, agricultural land marginalization and ecological restoration .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2011.10.014 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
中国20世纪80年代迎来了国 家土地利用形态的转型,即代表自然生态空间的森林面积降至低谷后反转向上,代表人类干扰较强的耕地面积从扩张到收缩。这是生态状况从整体恶化向整体改善转 变的最直接原因。森林转型对应着国家经济社会发展的阶段性演进过程,存在着必然性。其直接原因,是农林交错带的农业在与森林竞争土地资源的过程中失去优 势。伴随工业化和城市化的劳动力价格上升,生活水平提高带来的林木产品需求增加,是森林竞争力提高和农业竞争力下降的经济驱动力;而转型前农业扩张引起的 生态退化,则是其政策驱动力。在中国森林转型初期,政策起到了关键的促进作用。随着城市化的加速发展,人口年龄结构向老年型转变,中国迎来了劳动力工资持 续上涨的阶段。以坡耕地为代表的劳动力密集型农地利用方式,由于难以实现机械化,劳动生产率与平原区农业的差距将越来越大,被"边际化"的可能性越来越 高。这给森林面积或自然生态空间的进一步扩张提供了机会。
森林转型、农地边际化与生态恢复 .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2011.10.014 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
中国20世纪80年代迎来了国 家土地利用形态的转型,即代表自然生态空间的森林面积降至低谷后反转向上,代表人类干扰较强的耕地面积从扩张到收缩。这是生态状况从整体恶化向整体改善转 变的最直接原因。森林转型对应着国家经济社会发展的阶段性演进过程,存在着必然性。其直接原因,是农林交错带的农业在与森林竞争土地资源的过程中失去优 势。伴随工业化和城市化的劳动力价格上升,生活水平提高带来的林木产品需求增加,是森林竞争力提高和农业竞争力下降的经济驱动力;而转型前农业扩张引起的 生态退化,则是其政策驱动力。在中国森林转型初期,政策起到了关键的促进作用。随着城市化的加速发展,人口年龄结构向老年型转变,中国迎来了劳动力工资持 续上涨的阶段。以坡耕地为代表的劳动力密集型农地利用方式,由于难以实现机械化,劳动生产率与平原区农业的差距将越来越大,被"边际化"的可能性越来越 高。这给森林面积或自然生态空间的进一步扩张提供了机会。
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| [42] |
Trade-offs in land-use decisions: towards a framework for assessing multiple ecosystem responses to land-use change //https://doi.org/10.1029/153GM02 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
ABSTRACT People alter the landscape primarily to appropriate ecosystem goods such as food, fiber, and timber for human consumption. Unintended consequences for ecosystems vary according to the type of land-use change, e.g., forest clearing for agriculture, grassland conversion for grazing, or urban expansion, as well as the underlying ecological characteristics, e.g., humid vs. dry, phosphorus vs. nitrogen-limited, or tropical vs. temperate. The ecosystem responses potentially alter future abilities to provide ecosystem goods and influence future land-use decisions. This volume addresses five major ecosystem responses to land-use change: hydrological, climatic, biogeochemical, human health, and biological diversity. The chapters summarize current knowledge from the perspectives of different disciplines and present analyses from many parts of the world in different ecological and socioeconomic settings. This introductory chapter develops a framework for understanding and communicating the multiple ecosystem responses as an essential input to societal decisions about land use.
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Transitions in a Globalising World .https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019677316775 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
No Abstract available for this article.
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Transitions in European land-management regimes between 1800 and 2010 .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.07.003 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
@article{6917110, author = {Rudbeck Jepsen, Martin and Kuemmerle, Tobias and M{\"u}ller, Daniel and Erb, Karlheinz and Verburg, Peter H and Haberl, Helmut and Vesterager, Jens Peter and Andri\'{c}, Maja and Antrop, Marc and Austrheim, Gunnar and Bj{\"o}rn, Ismo and Bondeau, Alberte and B{\"u}rgi, Matthias and Bryson, Jessica and Caspar, Gilles and Cassar, Louis F and Conrad, Elisabeth and Chrom{\'y}, Pavel and Daugirdas, Vidmantas and Van Eetvelde, Veerle and Elena-Rossell{\'o}, Ramon and Gimmi, Urs and Izakovicova, Zita and Jan\v{c}{\'a}k, Vit and Jansson, Ulf and Kladnik, Drago and Kozak, Jacek and Konkoly-Gyur{\'o}, Eva and Krausmann, Fridolin and Mander, {\"U}lo and McDonagh, John and P{\"a}rn, Jaan and Niedertscheider, Maria and Nikodemus, Olgerts and Ostapowicz, Katarzyna and P{\'e}rez-Soba, Marta and Pinto-Correia, Teresa and Ribokas, Gintaras and Rounsevell, Mark and Schistou, Despoina and Schmit, Claude and Terkenli, Theano S and Tretvik, Aud M and Trzepacz, Piotr and Vadineanu, Angheluta and Walz, Ariane and Zhllima, Edvin and Reenberg, Anette}, issn = {0264-8377}, journal = {LAND USE POLICY}, language = {eng}, pages = {53--64}, title = {Transitions in European land-management regimes between 1800 and 2010}, url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.07.003}, volume = {49}, year = {2015}, }
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| [45] |
Globalizing land use transitions: The soybean acceleration .https://doi.org/10.1080/00167223.2011.10669524 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT This note presents the recent global development trends in soybean cultivation as derived from the FAO statistics. It focuses on the change over the course of the last thirty years, when significant new allocations of the global production have occurred, which have turned South America into a leading player on the global scale. It takes point of departure in a land change science approach and employs the notions of underlying and proximate drivers and teleconnections to characterize the process of land use change in relation to the accelerating use of land for soybean cultivation.
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| [46] |
Agricultural land conversion drivers: A comparison between less developed, developing and developed countries .https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1037 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study examines the level of intensity, trend and the main drivers of agricultural land conversion (ALC) worldwide. Considering the World Bank classification and using a stratified random sampling, 94 countries were selected in three different groups: less developing, developing and developed countries. Data were obtained from two databases; Nation Master and Earth Trends for the period of 1961-2003. The empirical results revealed some differences in the level of intensity and the trend of ALC among the groups. Agricultural land loss was more intensified in developing countries experiencing rapid economic growth and a transition in their economic structure. The results also showed that there is a positive correlation between ALC and productivity, capital-labour ratio and urban population. Urban population was identified as the main driver affecting ALC in all the countries. Furthermore, although urbanization process exists in all the groups, the developed countries are more successful in managing urban development and ALC. Considering the increasing trend of ALC in the future and its socio-economic and environmental impacts, this study concluded that governments' intervention in land policies is needed to preserve agricultural lands. Copyright (C) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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| [47] |
Rural housing land transition in transect of the Yangtse River .https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2005.02.001 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
利用样带这一综合与集成研究的工具,选取无论是在社会经济发展程度还是自然环境要素变化等方面部存在明显梯度的长江沿线样带为研究区,采用横向比较的研究方法,基于一定的理论假设,研究了区内的农村宅基地转型.研究表明:1987～2001年研究区根据土地利用变化的聚集度指数划分的各区段农村宅基地在建设用地增加中所占比例总体上看,从上游至下游,从甘孜-玉树区到泸州-迪庆区、恩施-重庆区、铜陵-宜昌区直至上海-巢湖区,这一比例逐渐降低;长江沿线样带各区段所处的农村宅基地转型阶段与样带内各区段所处的经济发展水平相吻合,基本上验证了此前的理论假设.据此,目前由各省(区、市)自行制定农村宅基地标准不利于实现土地的集约利用,国家应根据区域经济发展水平和自然条件的差异分区、分类制定农村宅基地标准.针对研究区目前农村宅基地的发展现状,根据区域农村宅基地转型阶段提出了相应的管理对策.
长江沿线样带农村宅基地转型 .https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2005.02.001 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
利用样带这一综合与集成研究的工具,选取无论是在社会经济发展程度还是自然环境要素变化等方面部存在明显梯度的长江沿线样带为研究区,采用横向比较的研究方法,基于一定的理论假设,研究了区内的农村宅基地转型.研究表明:1987～2001年研究区根据土地利用变化的聚集度指数划分的各区段农村宅基地在建设用地增加中所占比例总体上看,从上游至下游,从甘孜-玉树区到泸州-迪庆区、恩施-重庆区、铜陵-宜昌区直至上海-巢湖区,这一比例逐渐降低;长江沿线样带各区段所处的农村宅基地转型阶段与样带内各区段所处的经济发展水平相吻合,基本上验证了此前的理论假设.据此,目前由各省(区、市)自行制定农村宅基地标准不利于实现土地的集约利用,国家应根据区域经济发展水平和自然条件的差异分区、分类制定农村宅基地标准.针对研究区目前农村宅基地的发展现状,根据区域农村宅基地转型阶段提出了相应的管理对策.
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| [48] |
Urban transitions: on urban resilience and human-dominated ecosystems .https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0081-9 URL PMID: 21141773 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Urbanization is a global multidimensional process paired with increasing uncertainty due to climate change, migration of people, and changes in the capacity to sustain ecosystem services. This article lays a foundation for discussing transitions in urban governance, which enable cities to navigate change, build capacity to withstand shocks, and use experimentation and innovation in face of uncertainty. Using the three concrete case cities—New Orleans, Cape Town, and Phoenix—the article analyzes thresholds and cross-scale interactions, and expands the scale at which urban resilience has been discussed by integrating the idea from geography that cities form part of “system of cities” (i.e., they cannot be seen as single entities). Based on this, the article argues that urban governance need to harness social networks of urban innovation to sustain ecosystem services, while nurturing discourses that situate the city as part of regional ecosystems. The article broadens the discussion on urban resilience while challenging resilience theory when addressing human-dominated ecosystems. Practical examples of harnessing urban innovation are presented, paired with an agenda for research and policy.
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| [49] |
Connotation of multifunctional cultivated land and its implications for cultivated land Protection .https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.07.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
近年来,耕地多功能管理引起了国内外的广泛关注。针对耕地需求无序竞争、耕地边际化与耕地生态系统退化三大现实问题,建立了以土地单功能利用为症结的综合分析框架,认为中国耕地保护须向耕地多功能管理转型。然而,目前尚缺乏耕地多功能的内涵解释框架。本文通过梳理耕地多功能的相关研究,从实证与规范、供给与需求及其相互关系角度,建立了耕地多功能内涵的综合解释框架。最后,本文提出耕地保护转型可同时注重构建以主体功能差异化为前提的耕地多功能空间融合模式、拓展耕地价值的提升途径并建立耕地多功能统筹利用保障机制。
耕地多功能内涵及其对耕地保护的启示 .https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.07.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
近年来,耕地多功能管理引起了国内外的广泛关注。针对耕地需求无序竞争、耕地边际化与耕地生态系统退化三大现实问题,建立了以土地单功能利用为症结的综合分析框架,认为中国耕地保护须向耕地多功能管理转型。然而,目前尚缺乏耕地多功能的内涵解释框架。本文通过梳理耕地多功能的相关研究,从实证与规范、供给与需求及其相互关系角度,建立了耕地多功能内涵的综合解释框架。最后,本文提出耕地保护转型可同时注重构建以主体功能差异化为前提的耕地多功能空间融合模式、拓展耕地价值的提升途径并建立耕地多功能统筹利用保障机制。
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| [50] |
Changes of cultivated land function in China since 1949 .1949年以来中国耕地功能变化 . |
| [51] |
Explanation of land use changes .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-6301.2002.03.001 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
用途转移和集约度变化构成土地利用变化的两种基本类型.土地特性自身的变化、土地使用者个体经济行为分析及社会群体土地管理行为分析,构成土地利用变化解释的理论框架.从土地特性考察,多宜性和限制性是土地利用发生变化的基本条件.人类对土地利用的结果,总是趋向于使土地的多宜性降低和功能类型减少.竞租曲线、转移边际点以及打破土地利用空间均衡的条件分析,是土地利用变化经济分析的理论基础;"土地利用-环境效应-体制响应"反馈环的作用机制,构成社会群体土地管理行为分析的理论框架.土地利用变化的机理模型,目前主要以新古典经济学和地租理论为基础.多视角的探索可能是土地利用变化机理综合分析的有效途径.
土地利用变化的解释 .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-6301.2002.03.001 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
用途转移和集约度变化构成土地利用变化的两种基本类型.土地特性自身的变化、土地使用者个体经济行为分析及社会群体土地管理行为分析,构成土地利用变化解释的理论框架.从土地特性考察,多宜性和限制性是土地利用发生变化的基本条件.人类对土地利用的结果,总是趋向于使土地的多宜性降低和功能类型减少.竞租曲线、转移边际点以及打破土地利用空间均衡的条件分析,是土地利用变化经济分析的理论基础;"土地利用-环境效应-体制响应"反馈环的作用机制,构成社会群体土地管理行为分析的理论框架.土地利用变化的机理模型,目前主要以新古典经济学和地租理论为基础.多视角的探索可能是土地利用变化机理综合分析的有效途径.
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| [52] |
Spatial difference and its influence factors of cultivated land transition of poverty counties in west of Hubei .https://doi.org/10.11975/j.issn.1002-6819.2016.01.038 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
耕地利用转型对推动乡村转型发展,促进乡村社会经济水平的提高具有重要意义。为准确分析鄂西贫困县耕地利用转型的空间分异特征及其影响因素,该文从空间形态和功能形态2方面测度了耕地利用转型状况,利用空间自相关模型分析了耕地利用转型的空间分异特征,并利用径向基神经网络模型从人口、经济和产业结构3方面分析了耕地利用转型空间分异的影响因素效用。结果表明:从全局空间自相关来看,鄂西16贫困县2002-2013年耕地空间转型具有显著正相关效应,其中在2002-2005年正相关效应最强;而耕地功能形态转型呈现出逐渐减弱的空间正相关效应。从局部空间自相关来看,鄂西16贫困县耕地空间形态转型的低-低区分布主要在鄂西北地区,高-高区和低-高区主要分布在鄂西南地区;耕地功能转型的局部空间自相关性较低,空间异质性不明显,仅来凤县处于高-高区。在影响因素效用方面,人均固定资产投资和城市化率对耕地空间形态转型的影响效用最大,人口密度和第一产业占比影响效用最低;人口密度和人均固定资产投资对耕地功能形态转型的影响效用最大,城市化率、人均GDP、第一产业占比等影响因素效用较低。在影响因素的调控过程中,因素的影响效用与耕地利用转型调控程度呈正相关,因素的影响效用越高,对耕地利用转型调控力度越大。
鄂西贫困县耕地利用转型空间分异及其影响因素 .https://doi.org/10.11975/j.issn.1002-6819.2016.01.038 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
耕地利用转型对推动乡村转型发展,促进乡村社会经济水平的提高具有重要意义。为准确分析鄂西贫困县耕地利用转型的空间分异特征及其影响因素,该文从空间形态和功能形态2方面测度了耕地利用转型状况,利用空间自相关模型分析了耕地利用转型的空间分异特征,并利用径向基神经网络模型从人口、经济和产业结构3方面分析了耕地利用转型空间分异的影响因素效用。结果表明:从全局空间自相关来看,鄂西16贫困县2002-2013年耕地空间转型具有显著正相关效应,其中在2002-2005年正相关效应最强;而耕地功能形态转型呈现出逐渐减弱的空间正相关效应。从局部空间自相关来看,鄂西16贫困县耕地空间形态转型的低-低区分布主要在鄂西北地区,高-高区和低-高区主要分布在鄂西南地区;耕地功能转型的局部空间自相关性较低,空间异质性不明显,仅来凤县处于高-高区。在影响因素效用方面,人均固定资产投资和城市化率对耕地空间形态转型的影响效用最大,人口密度和第一产业占比影响效用最低;人口密度和人均固定资产投资对耕地功能形态转型的影响效用最大,城市化率、人均GDP、第一产业占比等影响因素效用较低。在影响因素的调控过程中,因素的影响效用与耕地利用转型调控程度呈正相关,因素的影响效用越高,对耕地利用转型调控力度越大。
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| [53] |
Characteristics and driving forces of regional land use transition based on the leading function classification: A case study of Jiangsu province .https://doi.org/10.15957/j.cnki.jjdl.2015.02.022 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
运用多视角的土地利用转移矩阵、土地利用动态度和典型相关性分析等方法,以江苏省1985、1995、2005和2008年4期遥感影像解译获取的土地利用数据为基础,基于＂生产—生态—生活＂土地利用主导功能分类体系,定量研究了江苏省24年来区域用地转型规律与驱动力变化。结果表明：11985—2008年间,即前工业化阶段到工业化中后期,江苏省土地利用变化显著,整体经历了＂缓慢变化—剧烈变化—缓慢变化＂的倒U型转型规律。2农业生产用地和绿色生态用地呈逐步减少趋势,区域用地的粮食生产功能与绿库功能相对重要性降低,而其他主导功能用地持续增加,土地利用系统历经了生产、生态与生活用地之间的耦合转型。3转出和转入双重视角下,农业生产用地在三个时期均成为其他用地最主要的来源,而生活用地成为最主要的接受者;绿色生态用地成为其他用地类型的次主要来源,但其和水域生态用地的相互转化调整使得生态用地总量保持稳定。4通过对多种潜在影响土地利用转型的社会经济因子进行典型相关性分析发现,GDP、工业产值、人口数量和粮食产量的变化是对江苏省用地转型贡献作用最大的驱动因子。
基于主导功能的江苏省土地利用转型特征与驱动力 .https://doi.org/10.15957/j.cnki.jjdl.2015.02.022 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
运用多视角的土地利用转移矩阵、土地利用动态度和典型相关性分析等方法,以江苏省1985、1995、2005和2008年4期遥感影像解译获取的土地利用数据为基础,基于＂生产—生态—生活＂土地利用主导功能分类体系,定量研究了江苏省24年来区域用地转型规律与驱动力变化。结果表明：11985—2008年间,即前工业化阶段到工业化中后期,江苏省土地利用变化显著,整体经历了＂缓慢变化—剧烈变化—缓慢变化＂的倒U型转型规律。2农业生产用地和绿色生态用地呈逐步减少趋势,区域用地的粮食生产功能与绿库功能相对重要性降低,而其他主导功能用地持续增加,土地利用系统历经了生产、生态与生活用地之间的耦合转型。3转出和转入双重视角下,农业生产用地在三个时期均成为其他用地最主要的来源,而生活用地成为最主要的接受者;绿色生态用地成为其他用地类型的次主要来源,但其和水域生态用地的相互转化调整使得生态用地总量保持稳定。4通过对多种潜在影响土地利用转型的社会经济因子进行典型相关性分析发现,GDP、工业产值、人口数量和粮食产量的变化是对江苏省用地转型贡献作用最大的驱动因子。
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| [54] |
The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths .https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00007-3 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Common understanding of the causes of land-use and land-cover change is dominated by simplifications which, in turn, underlie many environment-development policies. This article tracks some of the major myths on driving forces of land-cover change and proposes alternative pathways of change that are better supported by case study evidence. Cases reviewed support the conclusion that neither population nor poverty alone constitute the sole and major underlying causes of land-cover change worldwide. Rather, peoples' responses to economic opportunities, as mediated by institutional factors, drive land-cover changes. Opportunities andconstraints for new land uses are created by local as well as national markets and policies. Global forces become the main determinants of land-use change, as they amplify or attenuate local factors. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Indicators for multifunctional land use: Linking socio-economic requirements with landscape potentials .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.08.014 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Social utility, thus allows to evaluate sustainability of land development in a cross-sectoral approach with respect to multifunctionality.
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| [56] |
Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation . |
| [57] |
Human population growth and global land-use/cover change .
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| [58] |
Underlying and proximate driving causes of land use change in district Swat, Pakistan .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.02.008 URL 摘要
Given the present governance structure of forest management in Pakistan a multi-sectoral and multi-scale framework is required to conserve the Swat's natural landscape and associated ecosystem services. A carefully crafted reform programme is required to clarify and assign unambiguous property rights, provisions for communal management and market-based incentives, depending on the social, economic, and ecological characteristics of the different zones under consideration. Only with such policies in place can the current rapid rate of deforestation be avoided and sustainable natural resources use be ensured.
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Manifestations and underlying drivers of agricultural land use change in Europe .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.09.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Agricultural land use in Europe has changed considerably in the last decades. However, our understanding of agricultural land use changes, especially changes in land use intensity, is limited because the evidence is fragmented. This paper presents a systematic review of case study evidence on manifestations and underlying drivers for agricultural land use change in Europe. We analyzed 137 studies that together report on 76 cases of intensification and 143 cases of disintensification. Observed changes were manifested as expansion or contraction of agricultural land as well as in changes of land management intensity, landscape elements, agricultural land use activity, and specialization/diversification. Economic, technological, institutional and location factors were frequently identified as underlying drivers, while demographic drivers and sociocultural drivers were mentioned less often. In addition, we found that farmers were very important as moderators between underlying drivers and manifestations of agricultural land use change. Farmer decisions differed between different farmer types, and according to their characteristics and attitudes. We found major land use change trajectories in relation to globalization of agricultural markets, the transition from a rural to an urban society, and the shift to post-socialism in central and eastern Europe.
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| [60] |
Transaction cost economics: How it works; where it is headed . |
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The new Institutional economics: Taking stock, looking ahead . |
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| [63] |
Land sparing versus land sharing: Moving forward .https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12084 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT To address the challenges of biodiversity conservation and commodity production, a framework has been proposed that distinguishes between the integration (“land sharing”) and separation (“land sparing”) of conservation and production. Controversy has arisen around this framework partly because many scholars have focused specifically on food production rather than more encompassing notions such as land scarcity or food security. Controversy further surrounds the practical value of partial trade-off analyses, the ways in which biodiversity should be quantified, and a series of scale effects that are not readily accounted for.We see key priorities for the future in (1) addressing these issues when using the existing framework, and (2) developing alternative, holistic ways to conceptualise challenges related to food, biodiversity, and land scarcity.
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Beyond 'land sparing versus land sharing': Environmental heterogeneity, globalization and the balance between agricultural production and nature conservation .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.06.001 URL 摘要
ABSTRACT By addressing the trade-offs between food production and biodiversity conservation at landscape and ecoregion scales, the land sparing/sharing debate has made a significant contribution to land use science. However, as global population and food consumption grow, and urbanization and transnational trade intensify, land use trade-offs need to be analyzed at broader scales. These analyses should specifically consider the role of environmental heterogeneity on biodiversity distribution and agricultural suitability, the costs and benefits transferred far away from the focal land use, institutional and economic factors influencing stability and resilience, technology-related factors as mediators of agriculture suitability, and bundles of different environmental services. In addition, land use strategies to balance agriculture and biodiversity conservation must consider local socioeconomic constraints and trade-offs.
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Better land-use allocation outperforms land sparing and land sharing approaches to conservation in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.03.004 URL 摘要
Land sparing and land sharing are contrasting strategies often aimed at improving both agricultural production and biodiversity conservation in multifunctional landscapes. These strategies are embodied in land management policies at local to international scales, commonly in conjunction with other land-use policies. Evaluation of these strategies at a landscape scale, for multiple ecosystem service benefits, and multiple elements of biodiversity has not previously been attempted. We simulated the effects of applying land sharing and land sparing strategies to the agricultural zones designated by four future land-use scenarios (reflecting both current land-use and prospective land-use plans) in the Ex-Mega Rice Project region of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. We assessed impacts of each strategy on biodiversity, agricultural production, and other ecosystem service benefits at a landscape scale. We examined whether it was possible to achieve predetermined targets that reflect the aspirations and entitlements of diverse stakeholder groups. We found that the prospective land-use plans for the region would deliver considerably more benefit than the current land-use allocations, and while not all targets can be achieved, additional progress could be made with reasonable and realistic levels of land sharing or sparing. We found that species and forest types sensitive to agricultural disturbance could benefit most if land in agricultural zones was spared and prioritised for conservation. Conversely, land sharing strategies favoured the more widespread and common species, particularly if the area of wildlife-friendly agriculture is increased. However, the effectiveness of agricultural-focused land management strategies is inherently limited by the extent of agricultural zones. While agricultural land sparing and sharing strategies can deliver some gains in target achievement for multiple ecosystem services, we find that they have a limited effect over the benefits achieved by implementing better land-use allocation from the outset.
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| [66] |
Reconciling food production and biodiversity conservation: Land sharing and land sparing compared .https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1208742 URL PMID: 21885781 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The question of how to meet rising food demand at the least cost to biodiversity requires the evaluation of two contrasting alternatives: land sharing, which integrates both objectives on the same land; and land sparing, in which high-yield farming is combined with protecting natural habitats from conversion to agriculture. To test these alternatives, we compared crop yields and densities of bird and tree species across gradients of agricultural intensity in southwest Ghana and northern India. More species were negatively affected by agriculture than benefited from it, particularly among species with small global ranges. For both taxa in both countries, land sparing is a more promising strategy for minimizing negative impacts of food production, at both current and anticipated future levels of production.
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| [67] |
A note on sustainability economics and the capability approach .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.05.009 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
? Sustainability economics is an attempt to unite the criteria of efficiency with social justice in an environmental context. ? This article primarily focuses on the major role that freedom brings as a normative basis for well-being. ? This article sheds new light on the human-environment relationship through the study of conditions affecting the individual.
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| [68] |
Use and usefulness of sustainability economics .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.06.019 URL 摘要
Sustainable development is at the roots of sustainability economics. Baumg01rtner and Quaas (2010) define sustainability economics as the combination of economic efficiency and justice in the distribution of nature's services. Van den Bergh (in press) criticizes their approach as ‘axiomatic’ and incomplete, lacking a discussion of environmental externalities and dogmas like the ‘GDP dogma’. The focus on non-measurable welfare or happiness in both articles impairs the use and usefulness of their sustainability notions for applied economics and policy. Alternatively, environmentally modified national accounts offer a quantifiable sustainability concept of produced and natural capital maintenance. For practical reasons, sustainability economics should therefore deal with sustainable economic performance and growth. Coordination with other social goals has to be left to politics.
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| [69] |
What is sustainability economics? https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.019 URL 摘要
While economists have been contributing to the discussion of various aspects of sustainability for decades, it is just recently that the term “sustainability economics” was used explicitly in the ecological, environmental, and resource economics community. Yet, the contributions that use the term “sustainability economics” do not refer to any explicit definition of the term, and are not obviously joined by common or unifying characteristics, such as subject focus, methodology, or institutional background. The question thus arises: what is “sustainability economics”? In this essay, we systematically define and delineate “sustainability economics” in terms of its normative foundation, aims, subject matter, ontology, and genuine research agenda.
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| [70] |
Sustainability economics: General versus specific, and conceptual versus practical .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.06.018 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT We clarify the definition and interpretation of "sustainability economics" (Baumg盲rtner and Quaas, 2010) in response to recent comments by van den Bergh (2010), Bartelmus (2010) and others. For that sake, we distinguish between general and specific definitions of sustainability and sustainability economics, as well as between conceptual and practical approaches.
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| [71] |
The theoretical development and basic category of ecological rent .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1212.2010.10.035 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
从生态地租的涵义及其分配和归属等方面,探讨了生态地租理论的发展;并从生态资源的基本属性出发,结合地租理论的普遍原理,深入阐述了生态地租的形成、性质、计量和分配等基本理论范畴。生态地租本质上属于地租范畴的一部分,具有地租的普遍特性。但这一关于自然资源利用和保护的新的经济范畴,关键在于更为明确和直观地探讨了生态危机的加剧对人类社会的影响。它把长期以来地租原理中所强调的＂人与人的关系＂,提升到了＂人与自然的关系＂的新高度,从而为理解和解决生态环境问题提供了全新的思维和途径。
生态地租的理论发展及基本范畴 .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1212.2010.10.035 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
从生态地租的涵义及其分配和归属等方面,探讨了生态地租理论的发展;并从生态资源的基本属性出发,结合地租理论的普遍原理,深入阐述了生态地租的形成、性质、计量和分配等基本理论范畴。生态地租本质上属于地租范畴的一部分,具有地租的普遍特性。但这一关于自然资源利用和保护的新的经济范畴,关键在于更为明确和直观地探讨了生态危机的加剧对人类社会的影响。它把长期以来地租原理中所强调的＂人与人的关系＂,提升到了＂人与自然的关系＂的新高度,从而为理解和解决生态环境问题提供了全新的思维和途径。
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| [72] |
Spatial difference and its influencing factors in ecological land rent in China .https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201208010 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
生态地租是衡量资源稀缺的社会 经济效果的重要指标。在测算2002年和2007年中国各省份单位经济产出生态地租量和生态地租总量的基础上,运用ArcGIS和GeoDA软件分析生态 地租空间分异规律;并进一步采用传统回归分析以及空间相关性分析等方法,辨析生态地租空间分异的影响因素。结果表明:①中国单位经济产出生态地租量具有西 南、东北低,冀豫高的稳定分布特征,中西部地区呈增长趋势,东部地区则呈减少趋势,总体分布比较分散;②生态地租总量空间分异表现为显著的空间集聚特征和 东中西部分异特征,形成了明显的高-高集聚和低-低集聚类型区,环渤海地区、长三角地区、珠三角地区是生态地租总量高度集中区域,西部地区则相对较低;③ 生态地租空间分异受到人口、经济和产业结构等因素的显著影响,人口密度、城镇化水平、经济密度、人均消费水平及人均GDP与生态地租总量在空间关联性上显 著正相关,表现出明显的空间集聚特征;农业比重与生态地租总量之间显著负相关,存在空间上的分散性。
中国生态地租空间分异及其影响因素分析 .https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201208010 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
生态地租是衡量资源稀缺的社会 经济效果的重要指标。在测算2002年和2007年中国各省份单位经济产出生态地租量和生态地租总量的基础上,运用ArcGIS和GeoDA软件分析生态 地租空间分异规律;并进一步采用传统回归分析以及空间相关性分析等方法,辨析生态地租空间分异的影响因素。结果表明:①中国单位经济产出生态地租量具有西 南、东北低,冀豫高的稳定分布特征,中西部地区呈增长趋势,东部地区则呈减少趋势,总体分布比较分散;②生态地租总量空间分异表现为显著的空间集聚特征和 东中西部分异特征,形成了明显的高-高集聚和低-低集聚类型区,环渤海地区、长三角地区、珠三角地区是生态地租总量高度集中区域,西部地区则相对较低;③ 生态地租空间分异受到人口、经济和产业结构等因素的显著影响,人口密度、城镇化水平、经济密度、人均消费水平及人均GDP与生态地租总量在空间关联性上显 著正相关,表现出明显的空间集聚特征;农业比重与生态地租总量之间显著负相关,存在空间上的分散性。
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| [73] |
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| [74] |
Land use transition, livelihoods, and environmental services in montane mainland Southeast Asia .https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[278:LUTLAE]2.0.CO;2 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The present article provides an overview of the status of land use and land cover change science in Montane Mainland Southeast Asia in the context of a Mobile Workshop. Outcomes of the Mobile Workshop highlighted the rapid changes in land use and livelihoods, largely driven by the development of transport links, increasing market access, and trade liberalization. While many of these changes are likely to be beneficial, they must be carefully monitored, and relevant policies should be inclusive of all stakeholders. This is why it is important that land use science be cognizant of the need to make information accessible to policy-makers and land users.
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| [75] |
Critical linkages between land-use transition and human health in the Himalayan region .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2007.08.004 URL PMID: 17868868 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article reviews critical linkages between land-use transition and human health in the Himalayan region by applying ecosystem approaches to human health (or EcoHealth). Land-use transition in the Himalayan and similar regions includes sedentarization, agricultural intensification, habitat modification, migration, change of livelihoods and lifestyles, biodiversity loss, and increasing flash floods. These transitions, which can have impacts on human health, are driven by state policies, a market economy, and climate change. Human health is dependent on access to ecosystem services for food, nutrition, medicine, fiber and shelter, fresh water, and clear air. Ecosystem management has been a key means of controlling disease vectors and creating suitable habitats for human well-being. The paper identifies the web of environmental factors that influence human health. Institutional and policy issues for land-use and health transitions are also discussed. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| [76] |
Spatio-temporal change of urban-rural equalized development patterns in China and its driving factors .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.08.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<p class="FR_field">The urban-rural equalized development is not only significant theoretically, but also a strategic challenge facing the coordinated development of urban and rural China. In this paper we put forward an innovative theory of URED against the background of China's urban-rural transformation. The spatio-temporal pattern, its change and driving factors of urban-rural equalized development during 1996-2009 were analyzed using principal component analysis, the Markov chain model and exploratory spatial data analysis model based on the data for 31 Chinese provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities). It is found that during the study period URED exhibited an obvious tendency of "club homogenization" in China. However, since 2003 the homogenization of the URED for entire China has weakened. Moreover, URED showed a significant geographic characteristic of "polarization" during 1996-2003. Namely, the spatial units of a high URED level were concentrated in eastern China near the coast, and the spatial units of a low URED level were located mainly in central and western China. However, this spatial polarized structure of URED was destroyed since 2003, and the spatial disparity at the provincial level has decreased. Finally, it is concluded that policies and institutional structure, economic growth and urbanization were the main driving factors of the identified URED spatio-temporal pattern and its change in China. This study may serve as a scientific reference regarding decision-making in coordinating urban and rural development and in constructing the new countryside of China.
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| [77] |
Effects of rural-urban development transformation on energy consumption and CO2, emissions: A regional analysis in China .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.158 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
ABSTRACT Since the 1980s, China has been undergoing a period of rural rban transformation. The rapid rural urban development transformation (RUDT) in China has caused an excessive consumption of resources and environmental deterioration. Based on balanced provincial panel data in China gathered from 1990 to 2012, this study used an improved STIRPAT model to investigate the effects of RUDT on energy consumption and CO2 emissions on the regional and national levels. The empirical results showed that the impact of RUDT on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in China varied greatly across regions. The demographic transformation (measured by urbanization level) increased energy consumption and CO2 emissions in China and its eastern and central regions. The impact of employment structural transformation on energy consumption and carbon emissions across China generally was positive and significant but differed considerably across regions. The industrial structural transformation was positively correlated with and had a significant impact on energy consumption and emissions in the eastern and central regions, and that effect declined continuously from the eastern region to the central and western regions. Furthermore, the positive effect of land use transition on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the western region was greater than that in the eastern and central regions. These findings can provide policymakers with a sound scientific basis for energy saving and emission reduction decisions.
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| [78] |
Land use transitions and their effects on water environment in Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.04.023 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT This paper analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of land use in Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, one of the China's most important grain production bases experiencing rapid urban ural transformation development, using high-resolution Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) data and series data of water environmental quality monitoring in 2000 and 2010, and related socio-economic data from government departments. After assessing the change of water environmental quality of Huang-Huai-Hai Plain during 2000-2010, three spatial econometric regression models including Spatial Lag Model (SLM), Spatial Error Model (SEM) and ordinary least squares (OLS) are used to explore the correlationships between land use transitions and water environmental changes. The outcomes indicated that, during the research period, land use pattern changes in the study area were characterized by the loss of large quantities of farmland and the increase of construction land and water body. On the whole, the water environment in the study area was obviously improved, but there also existed partial deterioration as evidenced by the increase of monitoring sections with water environmental quality below Class V. In general, the increases of grassland, forested land and water body have positive effects on water environmental quality while farmland and construction land have negative effects on that. The authors argue that construction land use and farmland use have almost equal negative effects on water environmental quality, and managing agricultural non-point source pollution is pivotal to improve local water environmental quality. Finally, some of the major implications for managing the land and water resources in the plain areas of China as well as other developing countries undergoing rapid urban ural transformation development are discussed in the aspects of ecological farming practices, rural construction land management, land use planning and urban planning.
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| [79] |
Spatial predictions of land-use transitions and associated threats to biodiversity: The case of forest regrowth in mountain grasslands .https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2012.01215.x URL PMID: 23617194 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Question Can we predict where forest regrowth caused by abandonment of agricultural activities is likely to occur? Can we assess how it may conflict with grassland diversity hotspots? Location Western Swiss Alps (4003210m a.s.l.). Methods We used statistical models to predict the location of land abandonment by farmers that is followed by forest regrowth in semi-natural grasslands of the Western Swiss Alps. Six modelling methods (GAM, GBM, GLM, RF, MDA, MARS) allowing binomial distribution were tested on two successive transitions occurring between three time periods. Models were calibrated using data on land-use change occurring between 1979 and 1992 as response, and environmental, accessibility and socio-economic variables as predictors, and these were validated for their capacity to predict the changes observed from 1992 to 2004. Projected probabilities of land-use change from an ensemble forecast of the six models were combined with a model of plant species richness based on a field inventory, allowing identification of critical grassland areas for the preservation of biodiversity. Results Models calibrated over the first land-use transition period predicted the second transition with reasonable accuracy. Forest regrowth occurs where cultivation costs are high and yield potential is low, i.e. on steeper slopes and at higher elevations. Overlaying species richness with land-use change predictions, we identified priority areas for the management and conservation of biodiversity at intermediate elevations. Conclusions Combining land-use change and biodiversity projections, we propose applied management measures for targeted/identified locations to limit the loss of biodiversity that could otherwise occur through loss of open habitats. The same approach could be applied to other types of land-use changes occurring in other ecosystems.
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Effects of land use transitions due to rapid urbanization on ecosystem services: Implications for urban planning in the new developing area of China .https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.10.011 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
With the rapid development of Chinese economy, many negative effects of land use transitions under the pressure of rapid urbanization on local ecological system and environment have occurred. This paper examines the dynamic patterns of land use in Tianjin Binhai New Area experienced rapid urbanization, using high-resolution Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) data in 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2010, and socioeconomic data from both research institutes and government departments, and assesses the changes of ecosystem services value (ESV) by drawing a connection between the observed land use dynamics and the evaluation of ESV, based on the latest research of Costanza et al. (2014) and some revisions adapted to the situation of China. The outcomes indicated that, during the period 1985-2010, ESV of the study area decreased by 25.9%, from 12,194 to 9037 billion RMBY, due to the losses of large quantities of ecological land (e.g., farmland and water body) to construction land. Then, some of the major implications for improving the urban planning of Tianjin Binhai New Area were discussed. The authors argue that it is fundamental to meet the demand of construction land for socio-economic development, meanwhile protect regional ecosystem services function and maintain its stability; only in this way can the new developing area of China realize the sustainable use of ecological resources in the process of rapid urbanization, as well as the integration of economic, social and ecological benefits.
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| [81] |
Spatiotemporal characteristics, patterns and causes of land use changes in China since the late 1980s .https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201401001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
土地利用/土地覆被变化(LUCC)是人类活动与自然环境相互作用最直接的表现形式,本文采用相同空间分辨率的卫星遥感信息源和相同的技术方法,对中国1980年代末到2010年土地利用变化数据进行定期更新。在此基础上,提出并发展土地利用动态区划的方法,研究土地利用变化的空间格局与时空特征。我们发现:1990-2010年的20年间,中国土地利用变化表现出明显的时空差异。"南减北增,总量基本持衡,新增耕地的重心逐步由东北向西北移动"是耕地变化的基本特征;"扩展提速,东部为重心,向中西部蔓延"是城乡建设用地变化的基本特征;"林地前减后增,荒漠前增后减,草地持续减少"是非人工土地利用类型变化的主要特征。20世纪末与21世纪初两个10年相比,中国土地利用变化空间格局出现了一些新特征,原有的13个土地利用变化区划单元演变为15个单元,且部分区划单元边界发生变化。主要变化格局特征为黄淮海地区、东南部沿海地区、长江中游地区和四川盆地城镇工矿用地呈现明显的加速扩张态势;北方地区耕地开垦重心由东北地区和内蒙古东部转向西北绿洲农业区;东北地区旱作耕地持续转变为水田;内蒙古农牧交错带南部、黄土高原和西南山地退耕还林还草效果初显。近20年间,尽管气候变化对北方地区的耕地变化有一定的影响,但政策调控和经济驱动仍然是导致我国土地利用变化及其时空差异的主要原因。2000年后的第一个10年,土地利用格局变化的人为驱动因素已由单向国土开发为主,转变为开发与保护并重。在空间格局变化的分析方法方面,应用"动态区划法"开展世纪之交两个10年中国LUCC空间格局变化的分析,有效揭示了20年来中国LUCC"格局的变化过程",即动态区划边界的推移、区划单元内部特征的变化与单元的消长等;以及"变化过程的格局",即土地利用变化过程与特征的分阶段区域差异,清晰刻画了LUCC动态区划中区划单元的消长,单元边界的变动,以及前后10年的变化强度特征,揭示了土地利用"格局"与"过程"之间的交替转化规律,以及不同类型和区域的变化原因,证明了该分析方法的有效性。
20世纪80年代末以来中国土地利用变化的基本特征与空间格局 .https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201401001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
土地利用/土地覆被变化(LUCC)是人类活动与自然环境相互作用最直接的表现形式,本文采用相同空间分辨率的卫星遥感信息源和相同的技术方法,对中国1980年代末到2010年土地利用变化数据进行定期更新。在此基础上,提出并发展土地利用动态区划的方法,研究土地利用变化的空间格局与时空特征。我们发现:1990-2010年的20年间,中国土地利用变化表现出明显的时空差异。"南减北增,总量基本持衡,新增耕地的重心逐步由东北向西北移动"是耕地变化的基本特征;"扩展提速,东部为重心,向中西部蔓延"是城乡建设用地变化的基本特征;"林地前减后增,荒漠前增后减,草地持续减少"是非人工土地利用类型变化的主要特征。20世纪末与21世纪初两个10年相比,中国土地利用变化空间格局出现了一些新特征,原有的13个土地利用变化区划单元演变为15个单元,且部分区划单元边界发生变化。主要变化格局特征为黄淮海地区、东南部沿海地区、长江中游地区和四川盆地城镇工矿用地呈现明显的加速扩张态势;北方地区耕地开垦重心由东北地区和内蒙古东部转向西北绿洲农业区;东北地区旱作耕地持续转变为水田;内蒙古农牧交错带南部、黄土高原和西南山地退耕还林还草效果初显。近20年间,尽管气候变化对北方地区的耕地变化有一定的影响,但政策调控和经济驱动仍然是导致我国土地利用变化及其时空差异的主要原因。2000年后的第一个10年,土地利用格局变化的人为驱动因素已由单向国土开发为主,转变为开发与保护并重。在空间格局变化的分析方法方面,应用"动态区划法"开展世纪之交两个10年中国LUCC空间格局变化的分析,有效揭示了20年来中国LUCC"格局的变化过程",即动态区划边界的推移、区划单元内部特征的变化与单元的消长等;以及"变化过程的格局",即土地利用变化过程与特征的分阶段区域差异,清晰刻画了LUCC动态区划中区划单元的消长,单元边界的变动,以及前后10年的变化强度特征,揭示了土地利用"格局"与"过程"之间的交替转化规律,以及不同类型和区域的变化原因,证明了该分析方法的有效性。
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| [82] |
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| [83] |
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| [84] |
Co-operative Approaches to Sustainable Agriculture .
Across the OECD, farmers are voluntarily forming community-based associations to help achieve a more sustainable agriculture. What are the reasons behind this phenomenon? How can it be encouraged? To what extent can such group-based voluntary action substitute for, or complement, existing agri-environmental policy measures? In attempting to answer these questions the study looks at the recent development of landcare groups in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand. It also identifies the conditions under which such groups seem to work most effectively, and the types of issues for which they are best suited. The analysis of the different national experiences leads to a number of general observations and specific policy recommendations. In so doing, the study provides a new perspective on the role of voluntary, collective action in finding local solutions to local environmental issues.
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| [85] |
Multifunctionality: Towards an Analytical Framework .URL 摘要
Publication » Multifunctionality : Towards an analytical framework.
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Transition to multifunctional land use and agriculture . |
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